Climate Change, Extreme Weather, and Intimate Partner Violence in East African Agrarian-Based Economies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Uganda (n = 1739) | Zimbabwe (n = 5280) | Mozambique (n = 5824) | |
---|---|---|---|
Characteristics | Survey Year 2006 N (%) | Survey Year 2010 N (%) | Survey Year 2011 N (%) |
Urban/Rural | |||
Urban | 249 (14.3) | 1666 (31.6) | 1978 (34.0) |
Rural | 1490 (85.7) | 3614 (68.4) | 3846 (66.0) |
Age | |||
Mean age | 26.5 | 26.5 | 26.4 |
15–19 | 109 (6.3) | 317 (6.0) | 589 (10.1) |
20–29 | 749 (43.1) | 2299 (43.5) | 2287 (39.3) |
30–39 | 580 (33.4) | 1753 (33.2) | 1922 (33.0) |
40–49 | 301 (17.3) | 911 (17.3) | 1026 (17.6) |
Marital Status | |||
Married | 1137 (65.4) | 4203 (79.6) | 3048 (52.3) |
Living Together | 338 (19.4) | 208 (3.9) | 1832 (31.5) |
Other | 264 (15.2) | 869 (16.5) | 944 (16.2) |
Woman’s Education Level | |||
None | 432 (24.9) | 161 (3.1) | 1950 (33.5) |
Primary | 1049 (60.3) | 1807 (34.2) | 3040 (52.2) |
Secondary or Higher | 258 (14.8) | 3312 (62.7) | 834 (14.3) |
Partner’s Education Level | |||
None | 193 (11.1) | 152 (2.9) | 1219 (20.9) |
Primary | 997 (57.3) | 1191 (22.5) | 2904 (49.9) |
Secondary or Higher | 489 (28.1) | 3811 (72.2) | 1284 (22.0) |
Missing | 60 (3.5) | 126 (2.4) | 417 (7.2) |
Woman’s Occupation | |||
Unemployed | 137 (7.9) | 2939 (55.7) | 2854 (49.0) |
Professional, Technical, Managerial | 47 (2.7) | 166 (3.1) | 161 (2.8) |
Agricultural | 1208 (69.7) | 568 (10.7) | 1830 (31.4) |
Manual Labor | 95 (5.5) | 468 (8.9) | 66 (1.1) |
Other | 246 (14.2) | 1118 (21.2) | 894 (15.4) |
Missing | 3 (0.3) | 21 (0.4) | 19 (0.3) |
Partner’s Occupation | |||
Unemployed | N/A | 793 (15.0) | 213 (3.7) |
Professional, Technical, Managerial | 126 (7.2) | 378 (7.2) | 439 (7.5) |
Agricultural | 984 (56.6) | 915 (17.3) | 2368 (40.7) |
Manual Labor | 316 (18.2) | 2094 (39.7) | 1491 (25.6) |
Other | 290 (16.7) | 1048 (19.8) | 1202 (20.6) |
Missing | 23 (1.3) | 52 (1.0) | 111 (1.9) |
Partner drinks alcohol | |||
No | 752 (43.2) | 2765 (52.4) | 3526 (60.5) |
Yes | 985 (56.7) | 2515 (47.6) | 2298 (39.5) |
Missing | 2 (0.1) | N/A | N/A |
* Time to water and back (minutes) | |||
0–15 and on premises | 1075 (62.0) | 3546 (67.2) | 2805 (48.2) |
16–30 | 409 (23.5) | 1030 (19.5) | 1430 (24.5) |
31–45 | 56 (3.2) | 201 (3.8) | 517 (8.9) |
46–60 | 110 (6.3) | 289 (5.5) | 517 (8.9) |
61+ | 25 (1.4) | 166 (3.1) | 497 (8.5) |
Do Not Know | 4 (0.2) | 48 (0.9) | 58 (1.0) |
Missing | 60 (3.4) | N/A | N/A |
Domestic Violence | |||
Yes | 1052 (60.5) | 1933 (36.6) | 2517 (43.2) |
Uganda | Zimbabwe | Mozambique | |
---|---|---|---|
Any Forms IPV | Any Forms IPV | Any Forms IPV | |
OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | |
Unadjusted | |||
Severe Weather | 1.17 (1.04–1.30) | 1.27 (1.09–1.47) | 2.13 (1.84–2.45) |
Partner works in agriculture | 1.32 (1.08–1.60) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) |
Works in agriculture | 1.3 (1.06–1.60) | 1.31 (1.09–1.56) | 1.07 (0.95–1.19) |
Partner drinks | 2.17 (1.78–2.64) | 1.83 (1.31–2.05) | 2.69 (2.41–3.00) |
Urban/rural | 1.57 (1.20–2.06) | 1.07 (0.95–1.21) | 0.76 (0.68–0.84) |
Level of education | 0.84 (0.72–0.98) | 0.88 (0.80–0.98) | 1.14 (1.05–1.23) |
Partner’s level of education | 0.73 (0.62–0.86) | 1.00 (0.89–1.11) | 1.12 (1.03–1.21) |
Adjusted | |||
* Severe Weather | 1.23 (1.09–1.38) | 1.28 (1.09–1.51) | 1.91 (1.64–2.23) |
Partner works in agriculture | 1.16 (0.93–1.44) | 1.14 (0.98–1.32) | 0.89 (0.79–1.02) |
Partner drinks | 2.19 (1.78–2.69) | 1.81 (1.62–2.04) | 2.64 (2.35–2.96) |
Partner’s level of education | 0.8 (0.67–0.96) | 1.07 (0.95–1.20) | 1.00 (0.91–1.10) |
Uganda | Zimbabwe | Mozambique | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physical Violence | Emotional Violence | Sexual Violence | Physical Violence | Emotional Violence | Sexual Violence | Physical Violence | Emotional Violence | Sexual Violence | |
OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | OR (95%CI) | |
Unadjusted | |||||||||
Severe Weather | 0.98 (0.88–1.10) | 1.28 (1.14–1.43) | 1.30 (1.14–1.48) | 1.21 (1.01–1.45) | 1.13 (0.95–1.34) | 1.43 (1.13–1.81) | 1.31 (1.12–1.54) | 2.39 (2.03–2.80) | 1.39 (1.04–1.86) |
Partner works in agriculture | 1.40 (1.14–1.71) | 1.15 (0.95–1.40) | 1.27 (1.02–1.59) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | 1.00 (0.99–1.00) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | 0.99 (0.98–1.00) |
Works in agriculture | 1.36 (1.09–1.70) | 1.12 (0.91–1.38) | 1.34 (1.05–1.70) | 1.15 (0.93–1.41) | 1.16 (0.95–1.41) | 1.24 (0.97–1.59) | 0.92 (0.81–1.04) | 0.99 (0.88–1.12) | 0.55 (0.42–0.70) |
Partner drinks | 2.96 (2.39–3.67) | 2.02 (1.66–2.45) | 1.25 1.00–1.56 | 2.02 (1.76–2.31) | 1.76 (1.55–2.00) | 1.47 (1.25–1.73) | 2.46 (2.18–2.78) | 2.32 (2.08–2.60) | 2.6 (2.10–3.22) |
Urban/rural | 1.71 (1.25–2.32) | 1.18 (0.90–1.54) | 1.51 (1.08–2.10) | 1.04 (0.90–1.20) | 1.00 (0.87–1.14) | 1.18 (0.98–1.41) | 0.81 (0.72–0.92) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.91 (0.73–1.13) |
Level of education | 0.67 (0.57–0.79) | 0.92 (0.79–1.07) | 0.88 (0.74–1.05) | 0.89 (0.79–1.00) | 0.91 (0.81–1.02) | 0.93 (0.80–1.07) | 1.06 (0.97–1.16) | 1.15 1.06–1.25) | 0.96 (0.82–1.12) |
Partner’s level of education | 0.69 (0.58–0.82) | 0.77 (0.66–0.91) | 0.78 (0.65–0.93) | 0.99 (0.87–1.13) | 0.94 (0.83–1.07) | 1.05 (0.90–1.24) | 0.98 (0.90–1.08) | 1.14 (1.05–1.24) | 1.05 (0.90–1.23) |
Adjusted | |||||||||
Severe Weather | 1.05 (0.93–1.19) | 1.33 (1.19–1.50) | 1.36 (1.19–1.56) | 1.22 (1.00–1.48) | 1.17 (0.98–1.41) | 1.45 (1.13–1.85) | 1.15 (0.97–1.37) | 2.17 (1.83–2.58) | 1.03 (0.75–1.41) |
Partner works in agriculture | 1.17 (0.92–1.47) | 1.03 (0.83–1.29) | 1.18 (0.93–1.51) | 1.05 (0.88–1.25) | 0.97 (0.82–1.15) | 1.17 (0.95–1.45) | 0.91 (0.78–1.05) | 0.91 (0.80–1.04) | 0.72 (0.55–0.93) |
Partner drinks | 2.87 (2.30–3.59) | 2.07 (1.69–2.54) | 1.24 (0.99–1.56) | 2.00 (1.74–2.30) | 1.76 (1.55–2.01) | 1.49 (1.27–1.76) | 2.58 (2.27–2.92) | 2.22 (1.98–2.50) | 2.83 (2.25–3.55) |
Partner’s level of education | 0.79 (0.66–0.95) | 0.82 (0.69–0.98) | 0.82 (0.67–0.99) | 1.06 (0.92–1.21) | 0.99 (0.87–1.12) | 1.15 (0.97–1.36) | 0.91 (0.82–1.00) | 1.04 (0.95–1.14) | 0.90 (0.76–1.07) |
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Munala, L.; Allen, E.M.; Frederick, A.J.; Ngũnjiri, A. Climate Change, Extreme Weather, and Intimate Partner Violence in East African Agrarian-Based Economies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 7124. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20237124
Munala L, Allen EM, Frederick AJ, Ngũnjiri A. Climate Change, Extreme Weather, and Intimate Partner Violence in East African Agrarian-Based Economies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(23):7124. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20237124
Chicago/Turabian StyleMunala, Leso, Elizabeth M. Allen, Andrew J. Frederick, and Anne Ngũnjiri. 2023. "Climate Change, Extreme Weather, and Intimate Partner Violence in East African Agrarian-Based Economies" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 23: 7124. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20237124