How Do Health, Biological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Variables Interact over Time in Children of Both Sexes? A Complex Systems Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethics Declaration
2.2. Study Design and Participants
2.3. Instruments and Procedures
2.3.1. Health Indicators
2.3.2. Physical Activity
2.3.3. Motor Competence
2.3.4. Physical Fitness
2.3.5. Perceived Motor Competence
2.3.6. Executive Functions
2.4. Data Collection Procedures
2.5. Statistical Procedures
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cohort 1 (Girls = 16; Boys = 20) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | T0 | T1 | T2 | |||||||||
Girls | Boys | t/U | p | Girls | Boys | t/U | p | Girls | Boys | t/U | p | |
Age (years) | 6.31 ± 0.18 | 6.39 ± 0.97 | −0.93 a | 0.356 c | 7.36± 0.18 | 7.44 ± 0.27 | −1.01 a | 0.317 c | 8.35 ± 0.18 | 8.45 ± 0.30 | −1.14 a | 0.261 c |
Health Indicators | ||||||||||||
WHtR | 0.44 ± 0.02 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | −1.34 a | 0.187 d | 0.44 ± 0.03 | 0.44 ± 0.03 | −0.28 a | 0.782 c | 0.44 ± 0.04 | 0.45 ± 0.03 | −0.33 a | 0.744 c |
BFP (%) | 21.31 ± 4.48 | 13.82 ± 4.34 | 5.07 a | <0.001 e | 22.16 (6.07) | 12.22 (6.87) | 5.28 b | <0.001 c | 23.19 (10.31) | 12.10 (5.55) | 67.00 b | 0.002 |
Physical Activity | ||||||||||||
Steps | 6376.43 ± 2838.16 | 6916.57 ± 3154.33 | −0.53 a | 0.597 c | 10,322.04 ± 3855.51 | 8988.12 ± 3044.24 | 1.16 a | 0.254 c | 5996.43 ± 2473.21 | 10,330.91 ± 3154.33 | −3.52 a | <0.001 e |
Score | 7.38 ± 0.89 | 8.15 ± 1.16 | −2.17 a | 0.037 d | 7.67 ± 0.89 | 8.77 ± 1.48 | −2.60 a | 0.010 e | 7.83 ± 1.18 | 8.60 ± 1.35 | −1.79 a | 0.082 d |
Physical Fitness | ||||||||||||
Hand grip strength (kg) | 9.42 ± 2.10 | 10.76 ± 2.57 | −1.68 a | 0.102 d | 11.62 ± 2.17 | 11.40 ± 3.46 | 0.22 a | 0.822 c | 12.03 ± 2.32 | 13.85 ± 4.43 | −1.48 a | 0.148 d |
Abdominal resistance (rep) | 8.43 ± 5.07 | 11.90 ± 4.45 | −2.17 a | 0.036 d | 12.50 (6.50) | 14.00 (3.75) | 114.50 b | 0.149 | 13.50 (6.50) | 16.00 (6.25) | 132.50 b | 0.386 |
Upper limb strength (rep) | 2.50 (4.75) | 4.10 (7.50) | 125.50 b | 0.276 | 3.50 (10.00) | 3.00 (7.25) | 157.50 b | 0.937 | 3.50 (8.25) | 4.50 (8.00) | 128.00 b | 0.249 |
Speed (sec) | 24.84 (14.01) | 25.09 (13.83) | 143.00 b | 0.604 | 25.29 ± 1.48 | 23.78 ± 1.81 | 2.67 a | 0.010 e | 24.22 ± 1.49 | 23.71 ± 1.67 | 0.94 a | 0.354 c |
Lower limb strength (cm) | 98.50 (29.43) | 95.75 (34.00) | 154.00 b | 0.863 | 105.41 (22.65) | 119.17 (29.63) | 107.50 b | 0.095 | 112.21 ± 15.68 | 118.29 ± 17.14 | −1.09 a | 0.280 c |
Flexibility (cm) | 28.55 ± 5.32 | 25.26 ± 6.93 | 1.56 a | 0.126 d | 27.60 ± 6.78 | 23.62 ± 7.40 | 1.66 a | 0.103 d | 27.28 ± 6.70 | 23.78 ± 7.71 | 1.43 a | 0.160 c |
Agility (sec) | 8.68 ± 0.62 | 8.59 ± 0.72 | 0.37 a | 0.707 c | 8.14 (1.18) | 7.84 (0.79) | 101.00 b | 0.062 | 7.70 (0.75) | 7.21 (0.49) | 87.00 b | 0.020 |
Cardiorespiratory fitness (m) | 805.43 ± 141.08 | 859.56± 135.69 | −1.16 a | 0.253 c | 820.44 ± 114.05 | 846.27 ± 100.93 | −0.72 a | 0.483 c | 778.01± 143.15 | 846.31 ± 146.36 | −1.40 a | 0.169 c |
Motor Competence | ||||||||||||
Locomotion skill (pts) | 35.56 ± 6.12 | 35.37 ± 4.44 | 0.10 a | 0.916 c | 39.12 ± 4.50 | 38.25 ± 4.29 | 0.59 a | 0.558 c | 40.62 ± 4.12 | 40.00 ± 3.32 | 0.50 a | 0.618 c |
Object control skill (pts) | 25.18 ± 6.43 | 27.52 ± 5.56 | −1.16 a | 0.251 c | 29.81 ± 5.10 | 34.05 ± 4.01 | −2.79 a | 0.011 e | 36.18 ± 3.35 | 38.85 ± 3.45 | −2.32 a | 0.026 e |
Perceived Motor Competence | ||||||||||||
Pictographic Scale (pts) | 44.50 (8.75) | 43.50 (8.75) | 131.50 b | 0.369 | 41.50 (10.25) | 42.50 (9.75) | 126.50 b | 0.290 | 41.00 (10.25) | 37.50 (11.75) | 128.00 b | 0.320 |
Executive Fuction | ||||||||||||
Inhibitory control (sec) | 78.00 (32.25) | 71.50 (39.50) | 120.00 b | 0.211 | 57.50 (26.50) | 54.00 (12.50) | 114.00 b | 0.149 | 45.00 (18.75) | 45.00 (21.25) | 149.50 b | 0.741 |
Cognitive flexibility (pts) | 3.00 (2.00) | 3.00 (1.71) | 135.50 b | 0.440 | 4.43 ± 1.71 | 3.70 ± 1.41 | 1.41 a | 0.166 c | 5.00 (1.75) | 5.00 (2.75) | 156.50 b | 0.912 |
Working memory (pts) | 22.00 (4.00) | 24.00 (4.25) | 159.00 b | 0.987 | 20.00 (4.00) | 22.00 (18.00) | 155.50 b | 0.888 | 32.50 (11.00) | 30.00 (20.00) | 143.00 b | 0.604 |
Cohort 2 (Girls = 10; Boys = 21) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | T0 | T1 | T2 | |||||||||
Girls | Boys | t/U | p | Girls | Boys | t/U | p | Girls | Boys | t/U | p | |
Age (years) | 8.29 ± 0.31 | 8.19 ± 0.29 | 0.84 a | 0.407 c | 9.32 ± 0.33 | 9.21 ± 0.29 | 0.85 a | 0.400 c | 10.31 ± 0.32 | 10.21 ± 0.29 | 0.87 a | 0.387 c |
Health Indicators | ||||||||||||
WHtR | 0.46 (0.07) | 0.43 (0.06) | 92.50 b | 0.603 | 0.47 (0.09) | 0.43 (0.09) | 86.50 b | 0.441 | 0.45 (0.11) | 0.43 (0.09) | 92.50 b | 0.603 |
BFP (%) | 25.12 ± 7.63 | 16.61 ± 7.90 | 2.83 a | 0.008 e | 29.30 (14.82) | 13.10 (12.73) | 23.00 b | <0.001 | 22.63 (15.49) | 13.69 (14.91) | 45.00 b | 0.010 |
Physical Activity | ||||||||||||
Steps | 8204.40 ± 4558.85 | 9179.80 ± 4908.90 | −0.52 a | 0.601 c | 10,089.92 ± 4516.06 | 11,580.15 ± 4620.80 | −0.84 a | 0.405 c | 10,264.82 ± 4302.01 | 11,315.41 ± 5836.02 | −0.50 a | 0.617 c |
Score | 7.80 ± 1.33 | 8.68 ± 0.83 | −2.26 a | 0.031 e | 8.07 ± 1.03 | 8.96 ± 1.18 | −2.02 a | 0.052 e | 8.19 ± 1.04 | 8.49 ± 1.18 | −0.69 a | 0.491 c |
Physical Fitness | ||||||||||||
Hand grip strength (kg) | 12.00 ± 2.57 | 12.82 ± 2.67 | −0.80 a | 0.426 c | 14.45 ± 2.94 | 16.50 ± 3.70 | 0.65 a | 0.137 d | 16.95 ± 3.13 | 17.59 ± 3.65 | −0.47 a | 0.636 c |
Abdominal resistance (rep) | 7.10 ± 5.38 | 12.00 ± 5.54 | −2.32 a | 0.027 e | 10.40 ± 4.40 | 14.28 ± 4.75 | −2.17 a | 0.038 e | 12.10 ± 4.28 | 14.66 ± 5.42 | −1.31 a | 0.200 d |
Upper limb strength (rep) | 4.00 (7.25) | 6.00 (7.50) | 85.00 b | 0.416 | 2.50 (6.25) | 5.00 (7.00) | 69.00 b | 0.135 | 1.50 (4.50) | 9.00 (8.00) | 49.00 b | 0.017 |
Spcnhibeecnhibd (sec) | 23.94 (1.05) | 23.58 (0.95) | 65.00 b | 0.096 | 23.97 ± 1.60 | 22.80 ± 0.99 | 2.48 a | 0.019 e | 23.51 ± 1.33 | 22.82 ± 1.61 | 1.16 a | 0.253 c |
Lower limb strength (cm) | 103.49 ± 12.67 | 115.78 ± 19.05 | −1.84 a | 0.075 d | 112.00 ± 17.76 | 124.84 ± 21.35 | −1.64 a | 0.111 d | 120.29 ± 11.69 | 127.11 ± 21.31 | −0.94 a | 0.354 c |
Flexibility (cm) | 29.23 ± 3.93 | 25.71 ± 4.67 | 2.05 a | 0.049 e | 25.81 ± 5.50 | 24.45 ± 5.52 | 0.63 a | 0.529 c | 27.31 ± 5.29 | 25.99 ± 6.23 | 1.88 a | 0.069 c |
Agility (sec) | 8.21 ± 0.60 | 7.56 ± 0.55 | 2.97 a | 0.006 e | 7.36 ± 0.52 | 7.32 ± 0.42 | 0.21 a | 0.830 c | 7.39 ± 0.43 | 6.86 ± 0.44 | 3.15 a | 0.004 e |
Cardiorespiratory fitness (m) | 812.75 ± 68.66 | 891.91 ± 101.69 | −2.22 a | 0.034 e | 839.09 ± 120.14 | 911.00± 95.84 | −1.80 a | 0.082 d | 857.93 ± 67.37 | 899.02 ± 98.27 | −1.19 a | 0.243 c |
Motor Competence | ||||||||||||
Locomotion skill (pts) | 36.25 (8.63) | 36.50 (7.25) | 101.50 b | 0.884 | 39.50 ± 4.74 | 41.19 ± 2.96 | −1.21 a | 0.233 c | 42.00 ± 2.70 | 42.61 ± 2.53 | −0.62 a | 0.539 c |
Object control skill (pts) | 27.00 ± 5.03 | 29.40 ± 4.02 | −1.43 a | 0.162 d | 36.00 (6.50) | 39.00 (4.00) | 49.50 b | 0.017 | 38.20 ± 2.57 | 42.04 ± 4.91 | −2.31 a | 0.028 e |
Perceived Motor Competence | ||||||||||||
Pictographic Scale (pts) | 36.10 ± 5.40 | 39.80 ± 4.94 | −1.89 a | 0.068 d | 36.10 ± 4.45 | 40.23 ± 4.10 | −2.55 a | 0.016 e | 36.50 ± 4.35 | 37.95 ± 4.00 | −0.91 a | 0.366 c |
Executive Fuction | ||||||||||||
Inhibitory control (sec) | 53.50 ± 9.92 | 45.76 ± 8.79 | 2.19 a | 0.036 e | 41.00 ± 5.24 | 37.00 ± 5.33 | 1.61 a | 0.118 d | 37.00 (11.00) | 35.00 (9.50) | 98.00 b | 0.787 |
Cognitive flexibility (pts) | 5.00 (2.25) | 4.00 (2.00) | 72.00 b | 0.173 | 6.60 ± 1.83 | 5.23 ± 1.57 | 2.13 a | 0.042 e | 6.80 ± 1.47 | 5.80 ± 2.15 | 1.30 a | 0.202 d |
Working memory (pts) | 22.00 (6.75) | 24.00 (10.00) | 102.50 b | 0.917 | 24.00 (8.25) | 24.00 (15.00) | 95.00 b | 0.693 | 32.50 (12.25) | 35.00 (18.00) | 87.50 b | 0.466 |
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Pereira, E.d.S.; Thuany, M.; Bandeira, P.F.R.; Gomes, T.N.Q.F.; dos Santos, F.K. How Do Health, Biological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Variables Interact over Time in Children of Both Sexes? A Complex Systems Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 2728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032728
Pereira EdS, Thuany M, Bandeira PFR, Gomes TNQF, dos Santos FK. How Do Health, Biological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Variables Interact over Time in Children of Both Sexes? A Complex Systems Approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(3):2728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032728
Chicago/Turabian StylePereira, Elenice de Sousa, Mabliny Thuany, Paulo Felipe Ribeiro Bandeira, Thayse Natacha Q. F. Gomes, and Fernanda Karina dos Santos. 2023. "How Do Health, Biological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Variables Interact over Time in Children of Both Sexes? A Complex Systems Approach" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 3: 2728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032728