Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Positive Body Image Versus Body Image Dissatisfaction
“An overarching love and respect for the body that allows individuals to (a) appreciate the unique beauty of their body and the functions that it performs for them; (b) accept and even admire their body, including those aspects that are inconsistent with idealised images; (c) feel beautiful, comfortable, confident and happy with their body, which is often reflected as an outer radiance, or a “glow;” (d) emphasise their body’s assets rather than dwell on their imperfections; and (f) interpret incoming information in a body-protective manner whereby most positive information is internalised and most negative information is rejected or reframed”.
2.2. Body Talk and Socio-Cultural Attitude towards Physical Appearance: Internalisation of Thin/Athletic Bodies, Family, Peers and Media/Advertising Pressures
2.3. Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for Thin Body Image in Consumers’ Information Processing and Purchase Decisions
2.3.1. Social Visibility’s Avoidance and Proneness for E-Commerce and Non-Conspicuous Consumption
2.3.2. Changes in Products and Services Shopping Basket and “Corrective” Buying Preferences
2.3.3. Compensatory Consumption and Compulsive Buying Disorder
3. Methods
3.1. Measures
- (a)
- the influence of socio-cultural pressures was measured with 22 items of the Portuguese version of the Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4) developed by Barra et al. [4] based on the original version of Schaefer et al. [38] comprising five dimensions: “Internalisation—Thin/low body fat”—items 3, 4, 5, 8, 9; “Internalisation—Muscle/athletic”—items 1, 2, 6, 7, 10; “Family pressure”—items 11, 12, 13, 14; “Peer pressure”—items 15, 16, 17, 18; “Media pressure”—items 19, 20, 21, 22.
- (b)
- (c)
- the intention to change each one of ten parts of the body (using the scale 1—nothing to 4—a lot): face, hair loss, upper limbs, breasts and nipples, hips, genitals, lower members, generalised overweight, localised overweight and overall physical appearance.
- (d)
- the intention to make corrective changes was measured with 15 items of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS) developed by Henderson-King and Henderson-King [87];
- (e)
- in order to measure the Consumer Shopping Avoidance Behaviour (CSAB) due to body dissatisfaction, the authors proposed six items on a five-point Likert scale (1—never to 5—very often): (1) to avoid shopping in physical retail outlets, (2) to prefer e-commerce; (3) to avoid high-street shops; (4) to hide some body parts during shopping; (5) to avoid interaction with retail salespersons; (6) to hurry shopping times (reduce time spent out of home);
- (f)
- overall satisfaction with his/her body (on a 10-point Likert scale);
- (g)
- overall perception of physical appearance evaluated by others (on a 10point Likert scale);
- (h)
- the intention to buy a product/service as way to compensate for body dissatisfaction, with a list of eleven products: cosmetics, diet products, surgeries, hair-loss treatments, hair extensions, luxury products, hair-colour change, beauty treatments, travelling, health and wellness treatments and gymnasium classes;
- (i)
- the proneness to engage in compulsive buying was measured with the Portuguese version of the Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS) of Mattos et al. [92], which contains six self-report multiple-choice items assessing different aspects of compulsive buying over the past four weeks.
3.2. Sample
4. Results and Discussion
5. Conclusions
5.1. Implications for Research
5.2. Managerial Implications
5.3. Limitations of the Study and Further Research Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SATAQ-4 Scale Items | M | SD |
---|---|---|
3- I want my body to look very thin. | 2.16 | 1.221 |
4- I want my body to look like it has little fat. | 3.72 | 1.141 |
5- I think a lot about looking thin. | 2.81 | 1.363 |
8- want my body to look very lean. | 1.97 | 1.201 |
9- I think a lot about having very little body fat. | 2.93 | 1.394 |
Internalization of Thin/low body fat (Alpha = 0.851) | 13.59 | 5.016 |
1- It is important for me to look athletic. | 3.30 | 1.176 |
2- I think a lot about looking muscular | 2.51 | 1.267 |
6- I spend a lot of time doing things to look more athletic. | 2.31 | 1.265 |
7- I think a lot about looking athletic. | 2.76 | 1.333 |
10- I spend a lot of time doing things to look more muscular. | 1.99 | 1.130 |
Internalization of muscle/athletic body (Alpha = 0.892) | 12.87 | 5.165 |
11- I feel pressure from family members to look thinner. | 1.64 | 1.146 |
12- I feel pressure from family members to improve my appearance. | 1.96 | 1.306 |
13- Family members encourage me to decrease my level of body fat. | 2.10 | 1.303 |
14- Family members encourage me to get in better shape. | 2.66 | 1.355 |
Family pressure (Alpha = 0.811) | 8.36 | 4.092 |
15- My peers encourage me to get thinner. | 1.70 | 1.004 |
16- I feel pressure from my peers to improve my appearance. | 1.61 | 0.965 |
17- I feel pressure from my peers to look in better shape. | 1.63 | 1.001 |
18- I get pressure from my peers to decrease my level of body fat. | 1.49 | 0.882 |
Peers pressure (Alpha = 0.874) | 6.43 | 3.287 |
19- I feel pressure from the media to look in better shape. | 3.39 | 1.430 |
20- I feel pressure from the media to look thinner. | 2.93 | 1.571 |
21- I feel pressure from the media to improve my appearance. | 3.48 | 1.439 |
22- I feel pressure from the media to decrease my level of body fat. | 3.08 | 1.542 |
Media pressure (Alpha = 0.948) | 12.88 | 5.566 |
Total SATAQ-4- scale score (Alpha = 0.893) | 54.13 | 15.389 |
Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2) scale items | M | SD |
1. I respect my body. | 4.06 | 0.763 |
2. I feel good about my body. | 3.43 | 0.896 |
3. Ifeel that my body has at least some good qualities. | 3.88 | 0.766 |
4. I take a positive attitude towards my body. | 3.64 | 0.945 |
5. I am attentive to my body’s needs. | 3.69 | 0.903 |
6. I feel love for my body. | 3.56 | 0.985 |
7. I appreciate the different and unique characteristics of my body. | 3.48 | 0.940 |
8. My behavior reveals my positive attitude toward my body, for example I hold my head high and smile. | 3.62 | 1.046 |
9. I am comfortable in my body. | 3.60 | 0.926 |
10. I feel like I am beautiful even if I am different from media images of attractive people (e.g.,models, actresses/actors). | 3.63 | 0.970 |
Total BAS-2- scale score (Alpha = 0.936) | 36.60 | 7.308 |
Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale—ACSS Items | M | SD |
---|---|---|
1- It makes sense to have minor cosmetic surgery rather than spending years feeling bad about the way you look | 5.03 | 1.823 |
2- Cosmetic surgery is a good thing because it can help people feel better about themselves | 5.02 | 1.596 |
4- People who are very unhappy with their physical appearance should consider cosmetic surgery as one option | 4.23 | 1.622 |
5- If cosmetic surgery can make someone happier with the way they look, then they should try it | 4.66 | 1.517 |
14- Cosmetic surgery can be a big benefit to people’s self-image | 4.89 | 1.733 |
Intrapersonal (Alpha = 0.885) | 23.83 | 6.876 |
9- I would seriously consider having cosmetic surgery if my partner thought it was a good idea | 1.72 | 1.323 |
11- I would think about having cosmetic surgery in order to keep looking young | 2.24 | 1.523 |
12- If it would benefit my career I would think about having plastic surgery | 2.40 | 1.659 |
13- I would seriously consider having cosmetic surgery if I thought my partner would find me more attractive | 1.65 | 1.334 |
15- If a simple cosmetic surgery procedure would make me more attractive to others, I would think about trying it | 2.46 | 1.809 |
Consider (Alpha = 0.760) | 10.46 | 5.501 |
3- In the future, I could end up having some kind of cosmetic surgery | 3.72 | 1.885 |
6- If I could have a surgical procedure done for free I would consider trying cosmetic surgery | 3.90 | 2.184 |
7- If I knew there would be no negative side effects or pain, I would like to try cosmetic surgery | 4.10 | 2.159 |
8- I have sometimes thought about having cosmetic surgery | 3.00 | 2.254 |
10- I would never have any kind of plastic surgery (R) | 4.50 | 1.847 |
Social (Alpha = 0.907) | 19.22 | 8.851 |
ACSS total score (Alpha = 0.905) | 53.51 | 17.416 |
Consumer’s Shopping Avoidance Behavior—CSAB (elaborated by authors) | M | SD |
1- intention to avoid shopping in physical retailing outlets | 1.51 | 0.979 |
2- intention to buy in the e-commerce channel | 1.22 | 0.801 |
3- intention to avoid to high street shops | 1.32 | 0.881 |
4- intention to hide some body’s part during shopping | 1.94 | 1.231 |
5- intention to avoid interaction with shops salespersons | 1.34 | 0.885 |
6- intention to hurry the shopping (reduce the time out of home) | 1.32 | 0.864 |
CSAB total score (Alpha = 0.905) | 8.66 | 4.695 |
Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS) | M | SD |
1- In the last 4 weeks, what was the frequency of your compulsive buying episodes? | 4.54 | 0.732 |
2- In the last 4 weeks, what was the longest period in which you bought compulsively? | 4.57 | 0.630 |
3- In the last 4 weeks, how much money did you spend buying compulsively | 4.67 | 0.572 |
4- In the last 4 weeks, how strong was your urge to shop? | 3.89 | 0.846 |
5- In the last 4 weeks, how have you felt in relation to your debt? (*) | 3.76 | 0.577 |
6- In the last 4 weeks, how intense was the emotional problem caused by your buying behavior (suffering, anguish, guilt, shame, embarrassment)? | 4.71 | 0.681 |
CBFS total score (Alpha = 0.789) | 26.14 | 2.847 |
N | M | SD | Z (p) | BAS | N | M | SD | Z (p) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thin body internalization | Female | 105 | 2.8248 | 1.00793 | −2.380 | Low | 70 | 2.9771 | 1.04925 | −2.884 |
Male | 29 | 2.3310 | 0.89964 | p = 0.017 | High | 64 | 2.4344 | 0.87327 | p = 0.004 | |
Athletic body internalization | Female | 105 | 2.4933 | 1.00425 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 2.6714 | 1.07193 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 2.8621 | 1.10078 | High | 64 | 2.4656 | 0.98565 | |||
Family pressure | Female | 105 | 2.1214 | 1.04589 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 2.3036 | 1.00532 | −2.897 |
Male | 29 | 1.9741 | 0.94336 | High | 64 | 1.8555 | 0.99782 | p = 0.004 | ||
Peer pressure | Female | 105 | 1.5762 | 0.81388 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 1.8821 | 0.93029 | −4.081 |
Male | 29 | 1.7241 | 0.85394 | High | 64 | 1.3086 | 0.55051 | p < 0.001 | ||
Media pressure | Female | 105 | 3.4310 | 1.32037 | −3.182 | Low | 70 | 3.6107 | 1.20809 | −3.244 |
Male | 29 | 2.4569 | 1.39685 | p = 0.001 | High | 64 | 2.7930 | 1.46083 | p = 0.001 | |
SATAQ-4 | Female | 105 | 2.4893 | 0.69497 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 2.6890 | 0.70707 | −4.098 |
Male | 29 | 2.2697 | 0.69891 | High | 64 | 2.1714 | 0.58487 | p < 0.001 | ||
BAS-2 | Female | 105 | 3.6124 | 0.73481 | n.s. | |||||
Male | 29 | 3.8310 | 0.70158 | |||||||
CSAB | Female | 105 | 1.5000 | 0.83141 | −2.997 | Low | 70 | 1.7071 | 0.96327 | −5.135 |
Male | 29 | 1.2414 | 0.53561 | p = 0.003 | High | 64 | 1.1563 | 0.33972 | p < 0.001 | |
ACSS intrapersonal | Female | 105 | 4.9257 | 1.29325 | −2.261 | Low | 70 | 4.8229 | 1.19881 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 4.1862 | 1.52590 | p = 0.024 | High | 64 | 4.7031 | 1.55287 | ||
ACSS consider | Female | 105 | 1.9562 | 0.96436 | −2.019 | Low | 70 | 2.1771 | 1.24064 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 2.5862 | 1.40502 | p = 0.044 | High | 64 | 2.0000 | 0.92376 | ||
ACSS social | Female | 105 | 4.0362 | 1.78601 | −2.471 | Low | 70 | 4.0686 | 1.81679 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 3.1448 | 1.54633 | p = 0.013 | High | 64 | 3.5969 | 1.69761 | ||
ACSS | Female | 105 | 3.6394 | 1.11158 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 3.6895 | 1.18780 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 3.3057 | 1.31276 | High | 64 | 3.4333 | 1.12506 | |||
CBFS Total | Female | 105 | 26.2095 | 2.85783 | n.s. | Low | 70 | 25.5857 | 3.15995 | −2.448 |
Male | 29 | 25.8966 | 2.84536 | High | 64 | 26.7500 | 2.33673 | p = 0.014 | ||
BMI | Female | 105 | 18.5048 | 3.39107 | −4.828 | Low | 70 | 19.1440 | 3.74222 | n.s. |
Male | 29 | 21.7752 | 3.04891 | p < 0.001 | High | 64 | 19.2876 | 3.40933 |
Never | Rarely (1 to 3 Times Per Year) | Sometimes (4 to 6 Times Per Year) | Less than Once a Month (7 to 11 Times Per Year) | 1 to 3 Times Per Month (12 to 36 Times Per Year) | Every Week (52 Times Per Year) | Very often (More than Once a Week) | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cosmetics | 26.9 | 23.1 | 23.9 | 12.7 | 10.4 | 3.0 | 100.0 | |
Diet | 71.6 | 21.6 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 100.0 | |
Surgeries | 97.0 | 3.0 | 100.0 | |||||
Hair-loss treatment | 74.6 | 7.5 | 10.4 | 3.7 | 2.2 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 100.0 |
Hair extensions | 98.5 | 1.5 | 100.0 | |||||
Luxury products | 40.3 | 31.3 | 14.9 | 11.2 | 2.2 | 100.0 | ||
Hair change | 41.8 | 26.1 | 20.9 | 9.0 | 2.2 | 100.0 | ||
Beauty treatment | 44.0 | 25.4 | 8.2 | 11.9 | 9.0 | 1.5 | 100.0 | |
Travelling | 53.7 | 22.4 | 19.4 | 3.7 | 0.7 | 100.0 | ||
Wellness | 81.3 | 11.2 | 5.2 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 100.0 | ||
Gymnasium | 44.8 | 26.1 | 10.4 | 6.7 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 9.0 | 100.0 |
BMI | Thin Ideal | Athletic Ideal | Family Pressure | Peer Pressure | Media Pressure | SATAQ-4 | BAS-2 | CSAB | ACSS Intrapersonal | ACSS Consider | ACSS Social | ACSS_ Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BMI | 1.000 | ||||||||||||
Low fat | 1.000 | ||||||||||||
Athletic | 0.533 ** | 1.000 | |||||||||||
Family pressure | 0.345 ** | 0.196 * | 1.000 | ||||||||||
Peers pressure | 0.301 ** | 0.237 ** | 0.221 * | 0.458 ** | 1.000 | ||||||||
Media pressure | 0.436 ** | 0.218 * | 0.278 ** | 0.271 ** | 1.000 | ||||||||
SATAQ-4 | 0.176 * | 0.739 ** | 0.579 ** | 0.535 ** | 0.577 ** | 0.745 ** | 1.000 | ||||||
BAS-2 | −0.286 ** | −0.263 ** | −0.336 ** | −0.295 ** | −0.375 ** | 1.000 | |||||||
CSAB | 0.366 ** | 0.191 * | 0.324 ** | 0.335 ** | 0.422 ** | 0.493 ** | −0.531 ** | 1.000 | |||||
ACSS Intrapersonal | 0.216 * | 0.175 * | 0.300 ** | 0.234 ** | 1.000 | ||||||||
ACSS Consider | 0.267 ** | 0.202 * | 0.241 ** | 0.171 * | 0.317 ** | 0.436 ** | 1.000 | ||||||
ACSS Social | 0.302 ** | 0.209 * | 0.288 ** | 0.325 ** | 0.261 ** | 0.581 ** | 0.496 ** | 1.000 | |||||
ACSS Total | 0.309 ** | 0.232 ** | 0.322 ** | 0.358 ** | 0.238 ** | 0.813 ** | 0.715 ** | 0.891 ** | 1.000 | ||||
CBFS | −0.245 ** | −0.260 ** | −0.175 * | −0.242 ** | −0.322 ** | 0.240 ** | −0.172 * | −0.255 ** | −0.276 ** | −0.276 ** |
Loadings | Errors | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
ACSS | <--- | SATAQ | 0.514 | 0.725 |
BAS2 | <--- | SATAQ | −0.527 | 0.53 |
Media_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 0.644 | 0.562 |
Peers_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 0.605 | 1.024 |
Family_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 0.488 | 0.308 |
Muscle_Athletic | <--- | SATAQ | 0.646 | 0.491 |
Thin_low_fat | <--- | SATAQ | 0.803 | 0.331 |
ACSS_intrapersonal | <--- | ACSS | 0.689 | 0.797 |
ACSS_consider | <--- | ACSS | 0.593 | 0.704 |
ACSS_social | <--- | ACSS | 0.793 | 1.022 |
CSAB | <--- | SATAQ | 0.405 | 0.374 |
CBFS_total | <--- | SATAQ | −0.341 | 6.252 |
CSAB | <--- | BAS2 | −0.262 | 0.525 |
Estimate | S.E. | C.R. | p | Hypothesis | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACSS | <--- | SATAQ | 0.512 | 0.133 | 3.865 | *** | H4- supported |
BAS2 | <--- | SATAQ | −0.546 | 0.108 | −5.035 | *** | H1- supported |
Media_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 1.000 | ||||
Peers_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 0.495 | 0.101 | 4.902 | *** | |
Family_Pressure | <--- | SATAQ | 0.476 | 0.118 | 4.041 | *** | |
Muscle_Athletic | <--- | SATAQ | 0.697 | 0.143 | 4.880 | *** | |
Thin_low_fat | <--- | SATAQ | 0.910 | 0.143 | 6.346 | *** | |
ACSS_intrapersonal | <--- | ACSS | 1.000 | ||||
ACSS_consider | <--- | ACSS | 0.728 | 0.145 | 5.036 | *** | |
ACSS_social | <--- | ACSS | 1.548 | 0.271 | 5.713 | *** | |
CSAB | <--- | SATAQ | 0.360 | 0.097 | 3.710 | *** | H2- supported |
CBFS_total | <--- | SATAQ | −1.065 | 0.325 | −3.276 | 0.001 | H6- supported |
CSAB | <--- | BAS2 | −0.225 | 0.079 | −2.861 | 0.004 | H3- supported |
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Azevedo, A.; Azevedo, Â.S. Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 3567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043567
Azevedo A, Azevedo ÂS. Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(4):3567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043567
Chicago/Turabian StyleAzevedo, António, and Ângela Sá Azevedo. 2023. "Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 4: 3567. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043567