Impact of Unexpected In-House Major COVID-19 Outbreaks on Depressive Symptoms among Healthcare Workers: A Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Psychosocial Support System by the F-PSST
2.2. Study Design and Participants
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics
2.3.2. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)
2.3.3. Self-Confidence in Continuing to Work
2.3.4. COVID-19-Related Symptoms
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Information of Participants
Overall | PCR-Negative | PCR-Positive | Unknown PCR Status | pa | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n/Score | (%) | n/Score | (%) | n/Score | (%) | n/Score | (%) | |||
Total a | 558 | (100.0) | 386 | (69.2) | 108 | (19.4) | 64 | (11.5) | ||
Facility type | <0.001 | |||||||||
Hospital | 414 | (74.2) | 333 | (86.3) | 64 | (59.3) | 17 | (26.6) | ||
Nursing home | 144 | (25.8) | 53 | (13.7) | 44 | (40.7) | 47 | (73.4) | ||
Number of days between outbreak and response to the screening test | 0.076 | |||||||||
Mean | 27.28 | - | 27.4 | - | 29.27 | - | 22.95 | - | ||
Median | 16.50 | - | 15.0 | - | 20.50 | - | 25.00 | - | ||
SD | 19.01 | - | 19.9 | - | 19.11 | - | 10.95 | - | ||
Range | 7–88 | - | 7–71 | - | 12–88 | - | 9–64 | - | ||
Sex | 0.218 | |||||||||
Woman | 403 | (74.4) | 292 | (75.8) | 76 | (73.8) | 35 | (64.8) | ||
Man | 139 | (25.6) | 93 | (24.2) | 27 | (26.2) | 19 | (35.2) | ||
Age (years) | 0.064 | |||||||||
20–29 | 132 | (24.8) | 107 | (28.0) | 18 | (17.5) | 7 | (14.9) | ||
30–39 | 144 | (27.1) | 100 | (26.2) | 32 | (31.1) | 12 | (25.5) | ||
40–49 | 117 | (22.0) | 86 | (22.5) | 21 | (20.4) | 10 | (21.3) | ||
50–59 | 103 | (19.4) | 66 | (17.3) | 26 | (25.2) | 11 | (23.4) | ||
≥60 | 36 | (6.8) | 23 | (6.0) | 6 | (5.8) | 7 | (14.9) | ||
Job type | <0.001 | |||||||||
Nurse | 218 | (40.6) | 160 | (42.1) | 31 | (30.1) | 21 | (38.9) | ||
Nursing home staff | 77 | (14.3) | 30 | (7.9) | 46 | (44.7) | 12 | (22.2) | ||
Other HCW | 242 | (45.1) | 190 | (50.0) | 26 | (25.2) | 21 | (38.9) | ||
PHQ-9 | ||||||||||
Mean | 7.63 | - | 7.34 | - | 8.69 | - | 7.64 | - | 0.095 | |
SD | 5.75 | - | 5.59 | - | 6.20 | - | 5.79 | - | ||
Degree of severity | 0.442 | |||||||||
0–4 (minimal) | 186 | (33.3) | 130 | (33.7) | 36 | (33.3) | 20 | (31.3) | ||
5–9 (mild) | 208 | (37.3) | 151 | (39.1) | 32 | (29.6) | 25 | (39.1) | ||
10–14 (moderate) | 85 | (15.2) | 57 | (14.8) | 20 | (18.5) | 8 | (12.5) | ||
15–19 (moderately severe) | 53 | (9.5) | 32 | (8.3) | 12 | (11.1) | 9 | (14.1) | ||
20–27 (severe) | 26 | (4.7) | 16 | (4.1) | 8 | (7.4) | 2 | (3.1) | ||
≥10 on total scores (probable depression) | 164 | (29.4) | 105 | (27.2) | 40 | (37.0) | 19 | (29.7) | 0.140 | |
≥1 on item nine scores (suicidal ideation) | 57 | (10.2) | 39 | (10.1) | 16 | (14.8) | 2 | (3.1) | 0.050 | |
Self-confidence in continuing to work | 0.041 | |||||||||
Mean | 1.69 | - | 3.55 | - | 3.00 | - | 3.90 | - | ||
SD | 1.24 | - | 1.02 | - | 0.91 | - | 0.74 | - |
3.2. Associations between Sociodemographic Variables and Depressive Symptoms
Total Score (≥10 Compared with <10) | Item Nine Score (≥1 Compared with <1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p | OR | 95% CI | p | ||||
LL | UL | LL | UL | ||||||
Facility type | |||||||||
Hospital | Ref | Ref | |||||||
Nursing home | 1.08 | 0.71 | 1.63 | 0.722 | 1.25 | 0.69 | 2.29 | 0.465 | |
Number of days between outbreak occurrence and response to the screening test | 0.99 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 0.084 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 1.00 | 0.079 | |
Sex | |||||||||
Woman | Ref | Ref | |||||||
Man | 0.70 | 0.45 | 1.08 | 0.106 | 0.94 | 0.50 | 1.77 | 0.843 | |
Age (years) | |||||||||
20–29 | Ref | Ref | |||||||
30–39 | 0.63 | 0.36 | 1.09 | 0.096 | 0.46 | 0.21 | 1.01 | 0.052 | |
40–49 | 1.44 | 0.85 | 2.44 | 0.179 | 0.89 | 0.44 | 1.80 | 0.741 | |
50–59 | 1.23 | 0.71 | 2.13 | 0.468 | 0.41 | 0.17 | 1.01 | 0.052 | |
≥60 | 1.05 | 0.47 | 2.34 | 0.906 | 0.51 | 0.14 | 1.82 | 0.299 | |
Job type | |||||||||
Other HCW | Ref | Ref | |||||||
Nurse | 2.74 | 1.80 | 4.15 | <0.001 | 2.41 | 1.26 | 4.62 | 0.008 | |
Nursing home staff | 2.06 | 1.17 | 3.64 | 0.013 | 2.79 | 1.25 | 6.27 | 0.013 | |
COVID-19 infection status | |||||||||
PCR-negative | Ref | Ref | |||||||
PCR-positive | 1.57 | 1.00 | 2.47 | 0.048 | 1.55 | 0.83 | 2.89 | 0.171 | |
Unknown PCR status | 1.13 | 0.63 | 2.02 | 0.680 | 0.29 | 0.07 | 1.22 | 0.091 |
Total Score (≥10 Compared with <10) | Item Nine Score (≥1 Compared with <1) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | VIF | p | OR | 95% CI | VIF | p | ||||
LL | UL | LL | UL | ||||||||
Facility type | |||||||||||
Hospital | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Nursing home | 1.07 | 0.60 | 1.91 | 1.69 | 0.823 | 1.53 | 0.55 | 4.20 | 1.69 | 0.413 | |
Number of days between outbreak occurrence and response to the screening test | 0.99 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 1.12 | 0.101 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 1.00 | 1.12 | 0.076 | |
Sex | |||||||||||
Woman | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Man | 1.11 | 0.68 | 1.83 | 1.16 | 0.667 | 1.35 | 0.66 | 2.76 | 1.16 | 0.414 | |
Age (years) | |||||||||||
20–29 | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
30–39 | 0.64 | 0.36 | 1.14 | 1.58 | 0.132 | 0.41 | 0.18 | 0.93 | 1.58 | 0.034 | |
40–49 | 1.38 | 0.79 | 2.41 | 1.50 | 0.256 | 0.78 | 0.36 | 1.69 | 1.50 | 0.535 | |
50–59 | 1.05 | 0.59 | 1.89 | 1.58 | 0.863 | 0.27 | 0.10 | 0.75 | 1.58 | 0.011 | |
≥60 | 1.03 | 0.45 | 2.35 | 1.22 | 0.947 | 0.45 | 0.11 | 1.89 | 1.22 | 0.274 | |
Job type | |||||||||||
Other HCW | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Nurse | 2.61 | 1.67 | 4.09 | 1.26 | <0.001 | 2.61 | 1.28 | 5.29 | 1.26 | 0.008 | |
Nursing home staff | 1.65 | 0.84 | 3.26 | 1.52 | 0.148 | 2.71 | 0.83 | 8.88 | 1.52 | 0.099 | |
COVID-19 infection status | |||||||||||
PCR-negative | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
PCR-positive | 1.57 | 0.95 | 2.60 | 1.15 | 0.081 | 1.46 | 0.73 | 2.95 | 1.15 | 0.286 | |
Unknown PCR status | 1.35 | 0.66 | 2.77 | 1.21 | 0.405 | 0.28 | 0.06 | 1.38 | 1.21 | 0.118 | |
R2 | 0.10 | ** | 0.18 | ** |
3.3. Association between Depressive Symptoms and Self-Confidence in Continuing to Work
3.4. Sociodemographic Information of COVID-19-Related Symptoms in PCR-Positive HCWs
3.5. Associations between Sociodemographic Variables, Number of COVID-19-Related Symptoms, and Depressive Symptoms
3.6. Psychosocial Interventions for At-Risk HCWs
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lu, H.; Stratton, C.W.; Tang, Y.-W. Outbreak of Pneumonia of Unknown Etiology in Wuhan, China: The Mystery and the Miracle. J. Med. Virol. 2020, 92, 401–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- World Health Organization. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Situation Reports 1. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports (accessed on 20 February 2023).
- World Health Organization. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available online: https://covid19.who.int (accessed on 27 January 2023).
- Blasco-Belled, A.; Tejada-Gallardo, C.; Fatsini-Prats, M.; Alsinet, C. Mental Health among the General Population and Healthcare Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Meta-Analysis of Well-Being and Psychological Distress Prevalence. Curr. Psychol. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Da Silva Neto, R.M.; Benjamim, C.J.R.; de Medeiros Carvalho, P.M.; Neto, M.L.R. Psychological Effects Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2021, 104, 110062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- García-Iglesias, J.J.; Gómez-Salgado, J.; Fernández-Carrasco, F.J.; Rodríguez-Díaz, L.; Vázquez-Lara, J.M.; Prieto-Callejero, B.; Allande-Cussó, R. Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts in Healthcare Professionals during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review. Front. Public Health 2022, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olaya, B.; Pérez-Moreno, M.; Bueno-Notivol, J.; Gracia-García, P.; Lasheras, I.; Santabárbara, J. Prevalence of Depression among Healthcare Workers during the COVID-19 Outbreak: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 3406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pappa, S.; Ntella, V.; Giannakas, T.; Giannakoulis, V.G.; Papoutsi, E.; Katsaounou, P. Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Insomnia among Healthcare Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Brain Behav. Immun. 2020, 88, 901–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, L.H.; Drew, D.A.; Graham, M.S.; Joshi, A.D.; Guo, C.-G.; Ma, W.; Mehta, R.S.; Warner, E.T.; Sikavi, D.R.; Lo, C.-H.; et al. Risk of COVID-19 among Front-Line Health-Care Workers and the General Community: A Prospective Cohort Study. Lancet Public Health 2020, 5, e475–e483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheong, H.S.; Kwon, K.T.; Hwang, S.; Kim, S.-W.; Chang, H.-H.; Park, S.Y.; Kim, B.; Lee, S.; Park, J.; Heo, S.T.; et al. Workload of Healthcare Workers During the COVID-19 Outbreak in Korea: A Nationwide Survey. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2022, 37, e49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoogendoorn, M.E.; Brinkman, S.; Bosman, R.J.; Haringman, J.; de Keizer, N.F.; Spijkstra, J.J. The Impact of COVID-19 on Nursing Workload and Planning of Nursing Staff on the Intensive Care: A Prospective Descriptive Multicenter Study. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2021, 121, 104005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; Koenig, H.G.; Tong, Y.; Wen, J.; Sui, M.; Liu, H.; Zaben, F.A.; Liu, G. Moral Injury in Chinese Health Professionals during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Psychol. Trauma Theory Res. Pract. Policy 2022, 14, 250–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williamson, V.; Stevelink, S.A.M.; Greenberg, N. Occupational Moral Injury and Mental Health: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2018, 212, 339–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Perlis, R.H.; Ognyanova, K.; Santillana, M.; Baum, M.A.; Lazer, D.; Druckman, J.; Della Volpe, J. Association of Acute Symptoms of COVID-19 and Symptoms of Depression in Adults. JAMA Netw. Open 2021, 4, e213223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rogers, J.P.; Chesney, E.; Oliver, D.; Pollak, T.A.; McGuire, P.; Fusar-Poli, P.; Zandi, M.S.; Lewis, G.; David, A.S. Psychiatric and Neuropsychiatric Presentations Associated with Severe Coronavirus Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Comparison to the COVID-19 Pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry 2020, 7, 611–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Japan Nursing Association. Survey on Response of Nurses to COVID-19. Available online: https://www.nurse.or.jp/nursing/practice/covid_19/research/index.html (accessed on 27 January 2023).
- Poon, Y.-S.R.; Lin, Y.P.; Griffiths, P.; Yong, K.K.; Seah, B.; Liaw, S.Y. A Global Overview of Healthcare Workers’ Turnover Intention amid COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Future Directions. Hum. Resour. Health 2022, 20, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Health Insurance. Available online: https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health-medical/health-insurance/index.html (accessed on 18 February 2023).
- Japan Health Policy NOW. Japan Health Policy NOW—4.1 Overview of Japan’s Healthcare Delivery System. Available online: http://japanhpn.org/en/section-4-1/ (accessed on 18 February 2023).
- Awano, N.; Oyama, N.; Akiyama, K.; Inomata, M.; Kuse, N.; Tone, M.; Takada, K.; Muto, Y.; Fujimoto, K.; Akagi, Y.; et al. Anxiety, Depression, and Resilience of Healthcare Workers in Japan During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Outbreak. Intern. Med. 2020, 59, 2693–2699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inoue, Y.; Yamamoto, S.; Fukunaga, A.; Hoang, D.V.; Miki, T.; Islam, Z.; Miyo, K.; Ishii, M.; Ishiwari, H.; Konishi, M.; et al. Association between Engagement in COVID-19-Related Work and Depressive Symptoms among Hospital Workers in a Designated COVID-19 Hospital in Japan: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMJ Open 2021, 11, e049996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katsuta, N.; Ito, K.; Fukuda, H.; Seyama, K.; Hori, S.; Shida, Y.; Nagura, R.; Nojiri, S.; Sato, H. Elevated Depressive Symptoms among Newer and Younger Healthcare Workers in Japan during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Neuropsychopharmacol. Rep. 2021, 41, 544–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsuo, T.; Kobayashi, D.; Taki, F.; Sakamoto, F.; Uehara, Y.; Mori, N.; Fukui, T. Prevalence of Health Care Worker Burnout During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic in Japan. JAMA Netw. Open 2020, 3, e2017271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maeda, M. Psychosocial Support for Healthcare Workers in COVID-19 Pandemic: From the Field of the Support; Seishin Shobo: Tokyo, Japan, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Maeda, M.; Setou, N. Mental Health Crisis of Health Care Workers in COVID-19 Pandemic: Lesson from Practice. Mod. Media 2021, 67, 153–158. [Google Scholar]
- Shimada, J.; Hakozaki, T.; Kobari, T.; Waragai, M.; Kanari, Y. Medical Headquarters Response to Novel Coronavirus Infections in Fukushima Prefecture. Jpn. J. Disaster Med. 2022, 27, 68–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kitchener, B.A.; Jorm, A.F.; Kelly, C. Mental Health First Aid Manual, 4th ed.; Mental Health First Aid Australia: Parkville, VIC, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Inter-Agency Standing Committee. IASC Guidance on Basic Psychosocial Skills—A Guide for COVID-19 Responders|IASC. Available online: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/iasc-reference-group-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support-emergency-settings/iasc-guidance-basic-psychosocial-skills-guide-covid-19-responders (accessed on 29 November 2022).
- Inter-Agency Standing Committee. IASC Guidance on Operational Considerations for Multisectoral Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Programmes during the COVID-19 Pandemic|IASC. Available online: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/iasc-reference-group-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support-emergency-settings/iasc-guidance-operational-considerations-multisectoral-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support (accessed on 29 November 2022).
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.W. The PHQ-9: Validity of a Brief Depression Severity Measure. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 606–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Inagaki, M.; Ohtsuki, T.; Yonemoto, N.; Kawashima, Y.; Saitoh, A.; Oikawa, Y.; Kurosawa, M.; Muramatsu, K.; Furukawa, T.A.; Yamada, M. Validity of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-9 and PHQ-2 in General Internal Medicine Primary Care at a Japanese Rural Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Study. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2013, 35, 592–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muramatsu, K.; Miyaoka, H.; Kamijima, K.; Muramatsu, Y.; Tanaka, Y.; Hosaka, M.; Miwa, Y.; Fuse, K.; Yoshimine, F.; Mashima, I.; et al. Performance of the Japanese Version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (J-PHQ-9) for Depression in Primary Care. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2018, 52, 64–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R. The PHQ-9: A New Depression Diagnostic and Severity Measure. Psychiatr. Ann. 2002, 32, 509–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Naser, A.Y.; Dahmash, E.Z.; Al-Rousan, R.; Alwafi, H.; Alrawashdeh, H.M.; Ghoul, I.; Abidine, A.; Bokhary, M.A.; AL-Hadithi, H.T.; Ali, D.; et al. Mental Health Status of the General Population, Healthcare Professionals, and University Students during 2019 Coronavirus Disease Outbreak in Jordan: A Cross-Sectional Study. Brain Behav. 2020, 10, e01730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Şahin, M.K.; Aker, S.; Şahin, G.; Karabekiroğlu, A. Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, Distress and Insomnia and Related Factors in Healthcare Workers During COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey. J. Community Health 2020, 45, 1168–1177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santomauro, D.F.; Herrera, A.M.M.; Shadid, J.; Zheng, P.; Ashbaugh, C.; Pigott, D.M.; Abbafati, C.; Adolph, C.; Amlag, J.O.; Aravkin, A.Y.; et al. Global Prevalence and Burden of Depressive and Anxiety Disorders in 204 Countries and Territories in 2020 Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. Lancet 2021, 398, 1700–1712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Takahashi, T.; Ekoyama, S.; Tachikawa, H.; Midorikawa, H.; Shiratori, Y.; Ota, M.; Takahashi, S.; Arai, T. Mental Health of Caregivers Working in Nursing Homes during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2022, 51, 233–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thompson, E.J.; Stafford, J.; Moltrecht, B.; Huggins, C.F.; Kwong, A.S.F.; Shaw, R.J.; Zaninotto, P.; Patel, K.; Silverwood, R.J.; McElroy, E.; et al. Psychological Distress, Depression, Anxiety, and Life Satisfaction Following COVID-19 Infection: Evidence from 11 UK Longitudinal Population Studies. Lancet Psychiatry 2022, 9, 894–906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Humadi, S.; Bronson, B.; Muhlrad, S.; Paulus, M.; Hong, H.; Cáceda, R. Depression, Suicidal Thoughts, and Burnout Among Physicians During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Survey-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Acad. Psychiatry 2021, 45, 557–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bismark, M.; Smallwood, N.; Jain, R.; Willis, K. Thoughts of Suicide or Self-Harm among Healthcare Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Qualitative Analysis of Open-Ended Survey Responses. BJPsych Open 2022, 8, e113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharour, L.A.; Salameh, A.B.; Suleiman, K.; Subih, M.; EL-hneiti, M.; AL-Hussami, M.; Dameery, K.A.; Omari, O.A. Nurses’ Self-Efficacy, Confidence and Interaction With Patients With COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Study. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep. 2022, 16, 1393–1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Groff, D.; Sun, A.; Ssentongo, A.E.; Ba, D.M.; Parsons, N.; Poudel, G.R.; Lekoubou, A.; Oh, J.S.; Ericson, J.E.; Ssentongo, P.; et al. Short-Term and Long-Term Rates of Postacute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Systematic Review. JAMA Netw. Open 2021, 4, e2128568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopez-Leon, S.; Wegman-Ostrosky, T.; Perelman, C.; Sepulveda, R.; Rebolledo, P.A.; Cuapio, A.; Villapol, S. More than 50 Long-Term Effects of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 16144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Michelen, M.; Manoharan, L.; Elkheir, N.; Cheng, V.; Dagens, A.; Hastie, C.; O’Hara, M.; Suett, J.; Dahmash, D.; Bugaeva, P.; et al. Characterising Long COVID: A Living Systematic Review. BMJ Glob. Health 2021, 6, e005427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nalbandian, A.; Sehgal, K.; Gupta, A.; Madhavan, M.V.; McGroder, C.; Stevens, J.S.; Cook, J.R.; Nordvig, A.S.; Shalev, D.; Sehrawat, T.S.; et al. Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome. Nat. Med. 2021, 27, 601–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, S.U.; Amundsen, O.M.; Johnson, M.S.; Hoffart, A.; Halsøy, Ø.; Skjerdingstad, N.; Ebling, S.; Ebrahimi, O.V. Psychiatric Symptoms in COVID-19-Positive Individuals in the General Population: Trajectories of Depression, Anxiety, and Insomnia. Psychiatry Res. 2022, 317, 114806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
COVID-19-Related Symptoms | n/Scores | (%) |
---|---|---|
One or more COVID-19-related symptoms | 68 | (86.1) |
Impaired taste | 14 | (17.7) |
Impaired smell | 20 | (25.3) |
Fatigue | 25 | (31.6) |
Slight fever | 8 | (10.1) |
Dyspnea | 5 | (6.3) |
Headache | 18 | (22.8) |
Chest pain | 4 | (5.1) |
Sore throat | 13 | (16.5) |
Difficulty concentrating | 13 | (16.5) |
Memory impairment | 2 | (2.5) |
Sleep problems | 20 | (25.3) |
Decreased appetite | 8 | (10.1) |
Diarrhea | 5 | (6.3) |
Hair loss | 4 | (5.1) |
Red eyes | 0 | (0.0) |
Dizziness | 5 | (6.3) |
Cough | 36 | (45.6) |
Nasal discomfort | 18 | (22.8) |
Hoarse voice | 13 | (16.5) |
Numbness of the tongue and lips | 1 | (1.3) |
Decreased physical strength | 44 | (55.7) |
Weakened muscle | 31 | (39.2) |
Others | 7 | (8.9) |
Mean | 2.91 | - |
Median | 2.00 | - |
SD | 3.37 | - |
Range | 0–19 | - |
Total Score (≥10 Compared with <10) | Item Nine Score (≥1 Compared with <1) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | VIF | p | OR | 95% CI | VIF | p | ||||
LL | UL | LL | UL | ||||||||
Facility type | |||||||||||
Hospital | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Nursing home | 1.34 | 0.30 | 6.03 | 1.80 | 0.702 | 1.32 | 0.15 | 11.88 | 1.80 | 0.806 | |
Number of days between outbreak occurrence and response to the screening test | 1.00 | 0.98 | 1.03 | 1.30 | 0.901 | 0.97 | 0.92 | 1.02 | 1.30 | 0.184 | |
Sex | |||||||||||
Woman | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Man | 2.57 | 0.61 | 10.73 | 1.53 | 0.196 | 1.27 | 0.63 | 2.56 | 1.15 | 0.511 | |
Age (years) | |||||||||||
20–29 | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
30–39 | 0.72 | 0.16 | 3.29 | 2.06 | 0.669 | 0.17 | 0.02 | 1.57 | 2.06 | 0.118 | |
40–49 | 1.65 | 0.38 | 7.23 | 1.77 | 0.504 | 1.80 | 0.40 | 8.12 | 1.77 | 0.442 | |
50–59 | 2.70 | 0.63 | 11.58 | 1.93 | 0.181 | 0.23 | 0.04 | 1.45 | 1.93 | 0.118 | |
≥60 | 2.58 | 0.26 | 25.52 | 1.38 | 0.418 | 0.91 | 0.05 | 17.39 | 1.38 | 0.951 | |
Job type | |||||||||||
Other HCW | Ref | Ref | |||||||||
Nurse | 4.41 | 1.01 | 19.25 | 2.04 | 0.049 | 4.96 | 0.85 | 28.85 | 2.04 | 0.075 | |
Nursing home staff | 2.06 | 0.41 | 10.28 | 2.02 | 0.380 | 4.63 | 0.64 | 33.24 | 2.02 | 0.128 | |
Number of COVID-19-related symptoms | 1.45 | 1.16 | 1.81 | 1.09 | 0.001 | 1.22 | 1.01 | 1.47 | 1.09 | 0.042 | |
R2 | 0.39 | ** | 0.38 | * |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sato, H.; Maeda, M.; Takebayashi, Y.; Setou, N.; Shimada, J.; Kanari, Y. Impact of Unexpected In-House Major COVID-19 Outbreaks on Depressive Symptoms among Healthcare Workers: A Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 4718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064718
Sato H, Maeda M, Takebayashi Y, Setou N, Shimada J, Kanari Y. Impact of Unexpected In-House Major COVID-19 Outbreaks on Depressive Symptoms among Healthcare Workers: A Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(6):4718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064718
Chicago/Turabian StyleSato, Hideki, Masaharu Maeda, Yui Takebayashi, Noriko Setou, Jiro Shimada, and Yumiko Kanari. 2023. "Impact of Unexpected In-House Major COVID-19 Outbreaks on Depressive Symptoms among Healthcare Workers: A Retrospective Multi-Institutional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 6: 4718. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064718