The Impact of the Coronavirus Pandemic on the Contribution of Local Green Space and Nature Connection to Mental Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Sociodemographic Measures
2.3.2. Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale Short Form
2.3.3. Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale
2.3.4. Nature Connection Index
2.3.5. Percentage Green Space in Ward
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Univariate Comparisons before and during the Pandemic
3.3. Generalized Linear Models
3.3.1. Depression, Anxiety and Stress
3.3.2. Well-Being
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pre-Pandemic n = 470 n (%) Mean (st. dev.) | During-Pandemic n = 407 n (%) Mean (st. dev.) | Total Sample n = 877 n (%) Mean (st. dev.) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) * | 48.46 (14.42) | 40.79 (14.32) | 44.91 (14.87) | |
Gender * | Male | 183 (38.9%) | 102 (25.1%) | 285 (32.5%) |
Female | 286 (60.9%) | 304 (74.7%) | 590 (67.3%) | |
Other | 1 (0.2%) | 1 (0.2%) | 2 (0.2%) | |
Ethnicity | White | 447 (96.8%) | 388 (96.8%) | 835 (96.8%) |
Asian | 6 (1.2%) | 5 (1.1%) | 11 (1.3%) | |
Mixed | 6 (1.3%) | 8 (1.9%) | 14 (1.6%) | |
Other | 3 (0.6%) | 0 (0.0%) | 3 (0.3%) | |
Employment * | Full-time | 197 (42%) | 207 (51.0%) | 404 (46.2%) |
Part-time | 78 (16.6%) | 73 (18.0%) | 151 (17.3%) | |
Self-employed | 51 (10.9%) | 32 (7.9%) | 83 (9.5%) | |
Unemployed/unable to work | 14 (2.9%) | 8 (1.9%) | 22 (2.6%) | |
Retired | 92 (19.6%) | 42 (10.3%) | 134 (15.3%) | |
Homemaker | 6 (1.3%) | 11 (2.7%) | 17 (1.9%) | |
Student | 31 (6.6%) | 24 (5.9%) | 55 (6.3%) | |
Other | 0 (0.0%) | 9 (2.2%) | 9 (1%) | |
Relationship status | Single (legally) | 132 (28.1%) | 111 (27.3%) | 243 (27.7%) |
Married | 282 (60.0%) | 268 (66%) | 550 (62.8%) | |
Divorced or separated | 47 (10.0%) | 22 (5.4%) | 69 (7.9%) | |
Widowed | 9 (1.9%) | 5 (1.2%) | 14 (1.6%) | |
Percentage of green space in ward * | 62.38 ± 26.37 | 56.30 ± 24.95 | 59.40 ± 25.84 | |
Nature connection | 70.46 ± 23.94 #1 | 69.73 ± 23.67 #1 | 70.13 ± 23.81 #1 |
Pre-Pandemic (n = 470) | During-Pandemic (n = 407) | |
---|---|---|
Depression | 7.51 ± 8.84 #1 | 9.89 ± 8.40 *,#1 |
Anxiety | 3.67 ± 5.94 | 5.62 ± 6.69 *,#1 |
Stress | 9.29 ± 8.59 | 12.86 ± 8.65 *,#1 |
Well-Being | 22.46 ± 3.96 #1 | 21.70 ± 3.77 *,#1,#2 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | Model Fit | AIC | Model Fit | AIC | Model Fit | |
Depression | 5566.96 | χ2 (2) = 35.44 p < 0.002 | 3901.59 | χ2 (4) = 37.25 p < 0.001 | 3897.32 | χ2 (7) = 47.52 p < 0.001 |
Anxiety | 4372.30 | χ2 (2) = 53.86 p < 0.001 | 3052.32 | χ2 (4) = 35.69 p < 0.001 | 3050.20 | χ2 (7) = 42.82 p < 0.001 |
Stress | 5899.12 | χ2 (2) = 45.12 p < 0.001 | 4168.28 | χ2 (4) = 33.75 p < 0.001 | 4163.10 | χ2 (7) = 44.94 p < 0.001 |
Well-Being | 4835.52 | χ2 (2) = 15.17 p < 0.001 | 3377.79 | χ2 (4) = 38.89 p < 0.001 | 3374.55 | χ2 (7) = 48.13 p < 0.001 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beta | Wald Chi-Square | Sig | Beta | Wald Chi-Squared | Sig | Beta | Wald Chi-Squared | Sig | ||
Depression | Age | −0.015 | 35.012 | <0.001 * | −0.013 | 20.644 | <0.001 * | −0.011 | 14.254 | <0.001 * |
Gender | −0.080 | 1.126 | 0.289 | −0.094 | 1.166 | 0.280 | −0.114 | 1.673 | 0.196 | |
Nature connection | - | - | - | −0.007 | 18.070 | <0.001 * | −0.011 | 16.157 | <0.001 * | |
Percentage green space | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.003 | 0.955 | −0.001 | 0.089 | 0.766 | |
Time point | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.364 | 1.647 | 0.199 | |
Time point *nature connection | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.006 | 3.629 | 0.057 | |
Time point *percentage green space | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.002 | 0.604 | 0.437 | |
Anxiety | Age | −0.021 | 38.385 | <0.001 * | −0.019 | 25.711 | <0.001 * | −0.016 | 19.445 | <0.001 * |
Gender | 0.315 | 9.006 | 0.003 * | 0.235 | 3.831 | 0.050 | 0.200 | 2.797 | 0.094 | |
Nature connection | - | - | - | −0.003 | 1.715 | 0.190 | −0.002 | 0.256 | 0.613 | |
Percentage green space | - | - | - | −0.004 | 2.809 | 0.094 | −0.005 | 2.754 | 0.097 | |
Time point | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.241 | 0.326 | 0.568 | |
Time point *nature connection | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.002 | 0.232 | 0.630 | |
Time point *percentage green space | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.004 | 0.907 | 0.341 | |
Stress | Age | −0.013 | 40.358 | <0.001 * | −0.011 | 24.147 | <0.001 * | −0.009 | 16.464 | <0.001 * |
Gender | 0.128 | 4.364 | 0.037 * | 0.113 | 2.689 | 0.101 | 0.082 | 1.417 | 0.234 | |
Nature connection | - | - | - | −0.004 | 7.093 | 0.008 * | −0.004 | 4.286 | 0.038 * | |
Percentage green space | - | - | - | −0.002 | 1.818 | 0.178 | −0.002 | 0.934 | 0.334 | |
Time point | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.078 | 0.116 | 0.733 | |
Time point *nature connection | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.001 | 0.263 | 0.608 | |
Time point *percentage green space | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.001 | 0.230 | 0.632 | |
Well-being | Age | 0.035 | 14.065 | <0.001 * | 0.025 | 5.306 | 0.021 * | 0.020 | 2.869 | 0.090 |
Gender | 0.178 | 0.382 | 0.537 | 0.042 | 0.016 | 0.901 | 0.067 | 0.040 | 0.842 | |
Nature connection | - | - | - | 0.036 | 32.469 | <0.001 * | 0.047 | 30.260 | <0.001 * | |
Percentage green space | - | - | - | 0.002 | 0.076 | 0.783 | 0.009 | 1.453 | 0.228 | |
Time point | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.823 | 3.116 | 0.078 | |
Time point *nature connection | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.021 | 2.752 | 0.097 | |
Time point *percentage green space | - | - | - | - | - | - | −0.017 | 2.394 | 0.122 |
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Share and Cite
Wicks, C.L.; Barton, J.L.; Andrews, L.; Orbell, S.; Sandercock, G.; Wood, C.J. The Impact of the Coronavirus Pandemic on the Contribution of Local Green Space and Nature Connection to Mental Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5083. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20065083
Wicks CL, Barton JL, Andrews L, Orbell S, Sandercock G, Wood CJ. The Impact of the Coronavirus Pandemic on the Contribution of Local Green Space and Nature Connection to Mental Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(6):5083. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20065083
Chicago/Turabian StyleWicks, Claire L., Jo L. Barton, Leanne Andrews, Sheina Orbell, Gavin Sandercock, and Carly J. Wood. 2023. "The Impact of the Coronavirus Pandemic on the Contribution of Local Green Space and Nature Connection to Mental Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 6: 5083. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20065083