Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Summary
- Re-education involves transforming potential threats into beneficial opportunities through knowledge and understanding;
- Refocusing: shifting focus to stimuli already perceived as beneficial;
- Recoping: transitioning from harmful to healthy coping mechanisms.
3. How Stress Influences Health
3.1. Immune Response
3.2. Cancer
3.3. Gastrointestinal Illnesses
3.4. Diabetes
3.5. Epilepsy
3.6. Parkinson’s Disease
3.7. Depression and Anxiety
3.8. PTSD
3.9. Accelerated Aging, Early Mortality
3.10. Unhealthy Coping Responses to Stress
3.10.1. Smoking and Alcohol Consumption
3.10.2. Drugs and Hypersexual Behavior
3.10.3. Gambling
3.10.4. Compulsive Buying–Shopping Disorder (CBSD)
3.10.5. Overeating
3.10.6. Media and Games
3.10.7. Violence
3.10.8. Suicide
3.11. Conclusions
4. Sources of Chronic Stress
4.1. Work and Education
4.2. Old Age
4.3. Prenatal Stress
4.4. Traumatic Events
4.5. Parenting, Caring, and Nursing
4.6. Media
4.7. Conclusions
5. The Influence of BSRPs on Health
5.1. Perception: The Central Pillar in Stress
5.2. Perception Is a Learnable Skill
5.3. Over 200 BSRP Studies
5.4. Conclusions
- Re-education;
- Refocusing;
- Recoping.
6. Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs)
6.1. PsychoEducation, Paced Respiration, and Relaxation (PEPRR)
6.2. Animal-Assisted Therapy
6.3. Music Therapy
6.4. Singing
6.5. Distraction
6.6. Transcendental Meditation
6.7. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Cognitive Therapy (MBSR and MBCT)
6.8. The Teutsch IDEAL Method
- Resentment and irritation;
- Suppression;
- Increased resentment and irritation;
- Indirect expression, depression, alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse, gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive buying, illness, and scapegoating.
- The first pillar, behavioral psychogenetics, explores the inheritance of behavior, the formation of reactions during the prenatal period and childhood, and how these can be leveraged for permanent behavioral change through re-education. This re-education aims to alter responses to previously stressful situations, impacting gene expression and inducing epigenetic changes.
- The second pillar, human physics, applies the principles of physics to human behavior. This approach provides a scientific framework for understanding and predicting behavior in response to various stimuli by applying strict physical laws, thereby offering a robust foundation for behavior modification.
- The third pillar is akin to the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program, Transcendental Meditation, and other practices rooted in Buddhism or Hinduism that employ religion-neutral, scientific methodologies derived from these religious principles to achieve consistent results. However, in the case of the IDEAL method, it religion-neutrally incorporates spiritual laws and moral principles from the Bible, interpreting them through a scientific lens.
6.9. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
6.10. Tai Chi
6.11. Loving-Kindness and Compassion Meditation
6.12. Inquiry-Based Stress Reduction (IBSR, the Work)
6.13. Comprehensive Lifestyle Modification Programs (CLMPs)
6.14. Ngoma
6.15. Stress Management Education
7. Conclusions
8. Future Directions
- Implementing more controlled randomized studies;
- Developing standardized methodologies;
- Increasing sample sizes;
- Extending the duration of studies to capture long-term effects;
- Utilizing established biomarkers for stress diagnostics;
- Gathering comprehensive data on biochemical changes associated with stress and disease resolution;
- Investigating long-term epigenetic and genetic changes influenced by BSRPs.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gene Name | Associated with | Studies |
---|---|---|
5HTR2C | cardiovascular disease, depression, type-2 diabetes | [12] |
ABAT | immune system | [13] |
ACHE | PTSD | [14] |
ADRB | tumor | [15] |
AP-1 | restraint stress, inflammation | [16] |
ARHGEF1 | anxiety | [17] |
ATG16L1 | immune system | [13] |
BCR-ABL | leukemogenesis | [18,19,20] |
BDNF | mental disorders, MSDs | [21,22,23,24] |
BRCA1 | breast cancer | [25] |
CALM1 | PTSD | [26] |
CCNI | anxiety | [17] |
CD247 | depression | [27] |
CD28 | ||
CD3e | ||
Cited2 | immune system | [13] |
CLDN2 | restraint stress, metabolism | [28] |
COMT | neuroticism, depression | [9] |
Coq10b | immune system | [13] |
CREB | immune system | [16,29] |
CRHR1 | anxiety | [22,23,30] |
CSF3R | anxiety | [17] |
CTNNB1 | ||
DPYD | ||
DAT | anxiety | [22] |
DBH | ||
DRD1 | anxiety | [22,31] |
DRD2 | ||
DRD3 | ||
DRD4 | ||
EIF2 | PTSD | [32] |
EP300 | PTSD | [26] |
EPHX2 | depression | [33] |
FKBP5 | neuroticism, schizophrenia | [3,34] |
GAD1 | PTSD | [35] |
GATA1 | depression | [36] |
GPX1 | leukemogenesis | [20] |
GSTP1 | ||
GR/NR3C1 | depression, asthma, early life and perinatal stress | [3,37,38,39] |
IRF3 | anxiety | [17] |
NFKB1/NF-kB | immune system | [40] |
NPS | PTSD, anxiety | [35,41] |
NPSR1 | ||
NPY | appetite | [42] |
NR1H4 | restraint stress | [28] |
NRCAM | social defeat, abusive supervision | [43] |
NRF2 | oxidative stress | [16,32] |
NRG1 | depression | [33] |
OXTR | ||
NRXN1 | synaptic strength, depression, PTSD | [44] |
NRXN2 | ||
NRXN3 | ||
PLCB2 | anxiety | [17] |
POLM | ||
PPP3CA | ||
PPM1F | PTSD, depression | [45] |
PRKCA | PTSD | [26] |
SASP | restraint stress | [16] |
SIRT1 | leukemogenesis | [19] |
SLC6A4/5-HTT/5-HTTLPR | PTSD, neuroticism, anxiety, depression, early life stress, panic disorder | [31,46,47,48,49,50,51] |
TP53 | anxiety, PTSD | [17,26] |
TPH2 | mental disorders | [21] |
USP1 | ER, DNA stress | [52,53,54,55] |
WDR13 | social isolation, anhedonia, anxiety | [36] |
State | Participants | The Specific Psychological and Physiological Outcomes of BSRPs | Critique | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|
Advanced age-related conditions | 39 elderly, mean age 82 years | Improved acceptance, psychological flexibility, role limitations due to physical health; increased awareness, reduced judgment, greater self-compassion | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, qualitative data may introduce bias | [151] |
Advanced age-related conditions | 40 older adults, age 55–85 years | Reduced loneliness, downregulated pro-inflammatory NF-κB gene expression, a trend towards reduced C Reactive Protein | Small sample size, no active control group, short duration of experiment | [77] |
Advanced age-related conditions | 36 Japanese older adults | Decreased salivary cortisol; correlation between decreased cortisol, negative affect, and cognitive impairment | Small sample size | [152] |
Asthma | 73 adults | Improved asthma control by 32%, significant reduction in exhaled nitric oxide | Small sample size, no active control group | [153] |
Asthma | 29 patients | Improvements in quality of life, asthma control, lung function; reduction of rescue medication, stress, enhanced psychosocial and spiritual well-being | Small sample size | [154] |
Autoimmune hepatitis | 17 adults, mean age 53 years | Perceived stress scores decreased by 28.6%, ALT levels decreased by 37.8%, prednisone doses reduced by 42.5%, significant decrease in IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17, IL-23 | Small sample size, single-arm, non-randomized, no control group | [155] |
Burnout | 50 nonmedical hospital staff | Significant reductions in burnout, anxiety, and stress scores immediately after BSRP | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, no active control group | [108] |
Burnout | 27 female collegiate rowers | Improved psychological well-being, decreased depression and anxiety, enhanced sleep quality, improved athletic coping skills, reduced ergometer test completion time | Small sample size, quasi-randomized design, no active control group, short follow-up duration, potential non-specific intervention effects | [156] |
Burnout | 90 post-pandemic era nurses | Positive emotions increased, life satisfaction improved, psychological adaptation significantly higher, negative emotions decreased, low personal accomplishment reduced, job burnout significantly lower | Small sample size, no control group, short intervention duration | [157] |
Burnout | 13 nursing professionals | Reduction in perceived stress, burnout, depression, and anxiety; significant increase in physical and psychological domains of quality of life | Small sample size, lack of a control group, short duration of the intervention | [158] |
Burnout | 37 pediatric professionals | Improvement in psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and burnout; effects maintained over 3 months | Change in hair cortisol, small sample size, retreat attendance influenced results | [159] |
Burnout | 88 adults, mean age 51 | Immediate improvement in perceived stress, burnout, well-being, health status, back pain, and number of sick days; large effect sizes (Cohen’s d for PSQ: 1.09–1.72) | Small sample size, short duration of intervention | [160] |
Burnout | 53 teachers | Improvements in emotional exhaustion by 15.4% and personal accomplishment by 12.8% | Small sample size | [161] |
Cancer | 26 patient–caregiver dyads | Reduced cortisol and interleukin-6 levels, decreased stress and anxiety in patients | Small sample size, no control group, short intervention period | [162] |
Cancer | 71 patients | Significant decrease in perceived stress and post-traumatic avoidance symptoms, increase in positive states of mind and FFMQ scores | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, no active control condition | [163] |
Cancer | 120 adult patients | Decreased stress and depression, increased psychological well-being | Short duration, self-reported measures | [164] |
Cancer | 21 couples | Significant reductions in mood disturbance, muscle tension, neurological/GI symptoms, and upper respiratory symptoms | No control group, small sample size | [165] |
Cancer | 268 patients, 84% women | 55% reduction in mood disturbance, 29% reduction in stress symptoms, mindfulness increased significantly | No control group, improvements in some mindfulness aspects may need more time | [166] |
Cancer | 59 patients | Decreased cortisol levels, reduced Th1 cytokines, and lower systolic blood pressure; significant improvements in stress symptoms, quality of life, and mood | Small sample size, lack of a control group | [167] |
Cancer | 193 participants | Increased cytokines: GM-CSF, IL17, IL2, IL4, sIL-2rα; decreased cortisol, beta-endorphin, and oxytocin levels | No control group, results based on a single 70 min singing session | [168] |
Cancer | 979 adults | Medium improvements in stress, self-compassion, and social connectedness; participants practicing 5 or more days/week had greater reductions in perceived stress and increases in self-compassion | Differential study retention rates by treatment arm and self-reported engagement introduce selection bias | [169] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 336 women | Reduced somatic symptoms and distress post-intervention and at 6 months; increased mindfulness at 6 months; no significant effect at 12 months | No long-term effect on somatic symptoms at 12 months, small sample size, non-active control, varied time since diagnosis | [170] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 322 women | Reduced cortisol and IL-6 levels | Short-term study, no long-term data, small effect sizes, no significant group differences over 6 weeks | [171] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 322 women | Significant improvement in anxiety, fear of recurrence, fatigue severity, and fatigue interference; largest effect sizes in fear of recurrence problems and fatigue severity | Small to moderate effect sizes, greater benefits observed in participants with higher baseline stress levels | [172] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 36 women | Reduced blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, morning cortisol, increased mindfulness state | Small sample size, no control group, short follow-up period | [173] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 24 women | Significant improvement in role, cognitive, emotion, social functions, pain, fatigue, body image, future functions, therapy side effects | Small sample size, self-report tools | [174] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 225 women undergoing postoperative chemotherapy | Significant improvement in physiological, social, family, emotional, and functional statuses; significant reductions in anxiety and depression | Small sample size, unclear underlying mechanisms, and lack of long-term follow-up | [175] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 44 women | Anxiety decreased by 7.68, no significant changes in depression, stress, cortisol, and CRP | Small sample size, limited effect on depression, stress, and inflammatory markers | [176] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 192 women newly diagnosed | Decreased stress, fatigue, sleep disturbance; increased NKCA and IFN-gamma, decreased TNF-alpha | Inconsistent practice logging | [177] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 18 patients with metastasis | Mild improvements in average pain, general activity, sleep, and enjoyment of life; distress significantly reduced by 27% | Small sample size, some participants dropped out due to disease progression | [178] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 82 post-treatment patients | Reduced fear of recurrence, improved physical functioning, and mediated significant reductions in perceived stress and anxiety | Small sample size, short intervention duration | [179] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 101 patients (early chemotherapy) | Significant increases in post-traumatic growth, perceived social support, and quality of life | Small sample size, potential biases, and the short duration of the intervention | [180] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 142 breast cancer survivors | Increased telomerase activity by 17% over 12 weeks, no significant change in telomere length | No effect on telomere length, small sample size, short study duration | [75] |
Cancer/Breast cancer | 15 female breast cancer survivors | Improvements in depression, state anxiety, stress, fear of recurrence, sleep quality, fatigue, and quality of life | Single-group pre–post-test design, small sample size, no control group | [181] |
Cancer/Cervical cancer | 22 cervical cancer survivors | Improved quality of life and modulated stress-associated biomarkers; significant increase in telomere length in CD14(+) cells and a trend in CD14(-) cells; increases in naive T-cell population correlated with telomere length in CD14(-) cells | Small sample size, no control group, short duration | [76] |
Cancer/Colorectal cancer | 88 patients | Higher disease control rate by 7.67%, improved functional status by 18.53%, lower depression/anxiety scores, better treatment compliance by 18.53%, improved QoL | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, non-blinded design | [182] |
Cancer/head/neck | 19 patients, Australia | Reduced psychological distress and improved QoL, reductions in tension–anxiety | Small sample size, no control group, limited generalizability, no significant changes in depression–dejection | [183] |
Cancer/Lung cancer | 30 patients | Significant improvement in quality of life | Small sample size, short follow-up period | [184] |
Cancer/Lung cancer | 107 patients and partners | Patients: significant reduction in psychological distress, anxiety, depression, rumination, improved quality of life | Small sample size, high dropout, missing data, no significant effects for partners | [185] |
Cardiovascular disease | 74 black women | Reduced avoidance coping, slight decrease in TNF-alpha and hsCRP levels | Small sample size, no active control group, low baseline levels of psychological distress | [186] |
Cardiovascular disease | 60 cardiac patients | Systolic blood pressure decreased by 12%, perceived stress decreased by 45%, anger decreased by 48% | No significant effect on diastolic blood pressure, short intervention duration, no follow-up, self-reported measures | [187] |
Chronic diseases | 149 patients | Significant reduction in psychological distress (mean IES-R score decreased by 7.75 points), depression, and stress; improvements in psychological health sustained over 8 weeks | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, no active control group, reliance on self-reported measures, limited gender representation | [188] |
Chronic diseases | 38 participants (74% white, 79% female, average age 52.6 years) | Improved mental and physical function, reduced pain, self-efficacy; decreased primary care visits by 50%, specialty care by 38%, emergency department visits by 50%, and hospital admissions by 80% at 1 year | Single-cohort design, small sample size, no control group | [189] |
Chronic diseases | 29 individuals | Statistically significant improvements in physical, psychological health, well-being | Small sample size, no control group | [190] |
Chronic diseases | 17 participants | 94% found the BSRP positive, reporting increased exercise tolerance, group support, stress reduction, and beneficial spiritual experiences; none found it uncomfortable | Small sample size, no control group, short duration of the experiment, self-reported data may introduce bias | [191] |
Chronic pain/Arthritis, migraine, and fibromyalgia | 133 patients | Significant improvements in pain intensity, HRQoL, and psychological distress, particularly in patients with arthritis; smallest improvements in patients with chronic headache/migraine and fibromyalgia | Small sample size, no control group, varied compliance with home practice | [10] |
Chronic pain/Arthritis, lower back pain, fibromyalgia | 26 patients | Pain disability (22.2% improvement), psychological distress (31.1% improvement), and subjective pain rating (24.9% improvement) | Small sample size, no control group, short program length, reliance on self-reported measures, lack of follow-up data | [192] |
Chronic pain/Back pain | 23 patients | Improved back pain, somatic–affective depression symptoms, and frontal lobe activity | Small sample size | [193] |
Chronic pain/Back pain/Low back pain | 22 patients | Medium effect on health-related quality of life, psychological functioning, health-related life satisfaction, depression, and affective pain perception; pain severity improved | Small sample size, no control group, no differences in EEG power spectral density | [194] |
Chronic pain/Chronic neuropathic pain | 23 female breast cancer survivors | Increased posterior cingulate connectivity with medial prefrontal regions, correlated with a reduction in pain severity | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [195] |
Chronic pain/Fibromyalgia | 225 adults with fibromyalgia | BSRP superior to TAU post-treatment and at 12-month follow-up, superior to FibroQoL post-treatment, modestly better long-term in pain catastrophizing and fibromyalgianess | Small sample size, need for larger long-term studies, potential biases due to self-report measures | [196] |
Chronic pain/Fibromyalgia | 70 females with fibromyalgia | Reduced clinical severity, prevented IL-10 decrease, higher IL-6/IL-10 and CXCL8/IL-10 ratios associated with less improvement in psychological inflexibility | Small sample size | [197] |
Chronic pain/Migraine | 62 individuals, mean age 44 years | 27% reduction in migraine days, significant improvements in psychological symptoms, pain self-efficacy, and sensory pain perception | Small sample size | [198] |
Chronic pain/Multiple chemical sensitivity, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia | 76 women | Significant improvement in psychological distress, 5 of 9 SCL-90R subscales showed significant improvement, and 8 of 9 subscales showed significant improvement at 3-month follow-up | Control group scores unchanged, small sample size, larger sample and longer follow-up needed | [199] |
Chronic pain/Postherpetic neuralgia | 50 patients | Significant reduction in depression, anxiety, and pain scores | Small sample size, short intervention duration | [200] |
Coronary artery disease | 70 PCI patients | Decreased anxiety and depression, reduced perceived stress, increased mindfulness | Small sample size, short intervention, potential bias in telephone format | [201] |
Coronary artery disease | 24 patients with depression | Depressive symptoms decreased by 33%, mastery scores increased by 8.7%, improvements sustained over 12 months | Small sample size, high dropout rate, no control group, limited generalizability | [202] |
Coronary artery disease | 101 patients (59.4 ± 8.6 years) | Improved physical function and sum score, reduction in depression, anxiety, anger, and stress | No improvement in psychological outcomes for men, small sample size | [203] |
Coronary artery disease | 24 male patients | Significant improvement in psychosocial well-being; no change in basal cortisol levels or diurnal rhythm of cortisol; no correlation between stress score and cortisol levels | Small sample size, no control group; raises questions about the utility of salivary cortisol as a stress marker | [204] |
Coronary heart disease | 151 outpatients | Stress levels decreased significantly, anxiety decreased, distress decreased, perceived stress decreased, clinical events decreased | No significant difference in diastolic blood pressure, small sample size | [205] |
Coronary heart disease | 30 male patients | Significant reduction in anxiety, depression, perceived stress, systolic BP, BMI; therapeutic gains maintained at 3-month follow-up | Small sample size, only male participants, changes in medication not controlled | [206] |
Coronary heart disease | 56 African American patients | Myocardial flow reserve (MFR) increased by 14%, reductions in total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, smoking, depression, stress (GHQ) | Small sample size, limited follow-up period | [207] |
COVID-19 | 58 asymptomatic/mild patients | Anxiety and depression scores decreased, severe anxiety and depression reduced to 0%, light anxiety and depression increased | Small sample size, no long-term effect measurement, limited technical assessment | [208] |
COVID-19 | 84 pregnant women | Significant reductions in prenatal distress, anxiety, and childbirth fear scores | Small sample size, short-term follow-up | [209] |
COVID-19 | 60 patients | Mental well-being scores increased by 42% in the intervention group; control group scores decreased by 6% | Small sample size, urban-only setting, short follow-up, self-reported data | [210] |
Crohn’s disease | 116 adults | Decreased disease activity, increased quality of life by 22%, reduced psychological symptoms by 28%, reduced fatigue by 27% | Small sample size, short duration, only mild–moderate cases | [211] |
Crohn’s disease | 37 patients, 18–75 years | Improved erythrocyte sedimentation rate, T-cell profiling, fecal lactoferrin, calprotectin, quality of life, emotional distress, and core self-evaluation | Small sample size | [212] |
Dementia | 12 family caregivers of persons with dementia | Reduced behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in care recipients; decreased caregiver stress, improved sleep quality | Small sample size, no control group, short intervention period | [213] |
Dementia | 13 middle-aged and older adults | Decreased worry and increased serenity, improved quality of life, reduced psychological distress, enhanced mindfulness and self-compassion | Small sample size, lack of control group, short follow-up period, potential bias in self-reported measures | [214] |
Dementia | 825 patients (11 trials) | Significant reduction in behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia, particularly depression | No significant improvement in cognitive function, activities of daily living, agitation, or quality of life | [215] |
Dementia/Frontotemporal dementia | 13 individuals | Decline in anxiety (54% post-intervention, 62% at 2 months) and depression (23% at 2 months); improved coping, psychological distress, quality of life, and mindfulness skills | Small sample size, pilot study | [216] |
Depression | 92 students | Increased mindfulness, decreased depression, anxiety, stress, perceived stress, and anxiety sensitivity, and improved quality of life in physical health, psychological, and environmental domains | No significant improvements in social relationships, quality of life, worry, and experiential avoidance, small sample size, and potential self-selection bias among participants | [217] |
Depression | 78 premedical and medical students | Reduced self-reported state and trait anxiety, overall psychological distress, and depression, increased empathy | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, potential bias, no active control group | [218] |
Depression | 60 elderly | Significant reduction in depression and increase in mindfulness | Small sample size, non-random sampling, limited geographic scope | [219] |
Depression | 60 elderly | Significant reduction in depression symptoms, improved emotion regulation and sleep quality | Small sample size; short study duration; no long-term follow-up; potential self-reporting bias | [220] |
Depression | 50 adults | Improvement in perceived stress, depression, psychological well-being, neuroticism, binge eating, energy, pain, and mindfulness | Small sample size, no control group | [93] |
Depression | Various sample sizes across 23 studies | Significant improvements in depression, dementia, agitation, PTSD symptoms, and motor functions in multiple sclerosis and stroke | Overall low quality of studies, inconsistent methodologies | [221] |
Depression | 103 older adults | Clinical improvement, especially in younger, female participants with lower psychological symptom severity and those less likely to be diagnosed with depression or taking selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors | Small sample size | [222] |
Depression | 32 Japanese females | Improved mood states, increased salivary s-IgA levels in the depressed group; emotional inhibition had harmful effects on subjective health in the depressed group | Small sample size, short follow-up period, lack of control group | [223] |
Depression | 97 adults | Improvements in depression, overall psychological functioning, quality of life, anxiety, anger, and subjective happiness | Small sample size, no control group, short intervention duration | [224] |
Depression | 34 first-year nursing and midwifery students | Improvements in depression, anxiety, and stress scores; increased salivary immunoglobulin-A secretion; decreased salivary cortisol concentrations | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [225] |
Diabetes/Chronic diabetic foot ulcers | 8 patients, 6 family caregivers | Improved DFU healing and emotional well-being | Small sample size, qualitative study | [226] |
Diabetes/Gestational diabetes | 78 women | Significant reduction in fasting blood sugar, 2 h blood sugar levels, significant reduction in perceived stress | Study design was quasi-experimental | [227] |
Diabetes/Type-2 diabetes | 19 adults | Significant reduction in depression, lower HbA1c | Small sample size; of 15 participants, only 46.7% attended all sessions | [228] |
Diabetes/Type-2 diabetes | 14 adults | Decreased HA1c, arterial pressure, anxiety, depression, and general psychological distress | Small sample size, no change in body weight | [229] |
Diabetes/Type-2 diabetes | 56 adults | Significant reductions in serum cortisol and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels | Small sample size, no statistically significant differences in stress, glycemic control, vascular inflammation | [230] |
Diabetes/Type-2 diabetes | 48 patients | Significant improvements in fasting blood sugar and HbA1c levels | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [231] |
HIV/AIDS | 177 adults with HIV-1 | Depression decreased by 20.9%, positive affect increased by 1.4%, perceived stress decreased by 7.1%, mindfulness increased by 6.3%, no significant changes in CD4+ T-cell counts, HIV-1 viral load, IL-6, CRP, or D-dimer | Psychological benefits did not sustain long-term, no significant immunological outcomes, high control group interaction | [232] |
HIV/AIDS | 34 adults, primarily gay | NK cell activity increased by 110%, NK cell number increased by 116%, no significant changes in psychological, endocrine, or functional health variables | Nonrandomized design, small sample size, high attrition rate, self-selected participants | [233] |
HIV/AIDS | 173 HIV+ patients, mean age 35.1 years | CD4 count increased up to 9 months, SCL-90R scores improved up to 6 months, MSCL scores improved up to 12 months | Randomization failure for CD4 count, small sample size, non-blinded assessments, self-reporting bias | [234] |
HIV/AIDS | 180 individuals aged 55+ | Improvement in depression at 8 weeks (not sustained at 16 weeks), improved quality of life (QOL) at 16 weeks, no change in cognitive performance | Short-term benefits in depression and QOL, no long-term sustainment, no cognitive improvement | [235] |
HIV/AIDS | 22 individuals | Improved vitality, general health, physical well-being, HRQoL; reduced stress and depression; slightly lower cortisol and norepinephrine levels | No significant immune activation differences, small sample size, short follow-up | [236] |
HIV/AIDS | 6 HIV-positive individuals | CD4 count increased significantly and remained up to 12 months; improved SCL-90-R, but not sustained at follow-ups; no significant changes in physical status (MSCL) | Small sample size, lack of sustained psychological improvement | [237] |
HIV/AIDS | 76 individuals on ART | ART-related symptoms reduced by 39.1% at 3 months and 46.2% at 6 months, symptom-related distress decreased significantly | Small sample size, no significant effects on overall adherence or psychological functioning | [238] |
Hypertension | 38 hypertensive employees | Systolic BP reduced by 10.6 mm Hg, diastolic BP reduced by 6.3 mm Hg, decreased stress, depression, psychological distress, increased peacefulness, positive outlook, workplace satisfaction, and value of contribution | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, no active control group, potential self-selection bias | [239] |
Hypertension | 872 patients (12 trials) | SBP decreased by 6.64 mmHg, DBP by 2.47 mmHg, DBP reduction sustained up to 3–6 months, no significant out-of-office BP reduction, reduced depression, anxiety, stress | Limited high-quality trials, few out-of-office BP reports, small sample sizes, lack of long-term data, inconsistent randomization | [240] |
Hypertension | 85 African Americans (52.8 years) | Significantly lower LVMI, significant reductions in BP and in anger | Small sample size, high attrition rate, no record of compliance for home TM practice | [241] |
Hypertension | 45 subjects | Systolic/diastolic blood pressure and perceived stress significantly reduced; adherence to the Mediterranean diet increased | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [242] |
Injuries/Pulmonary | 40 male veterans | Improved mental health and health-related quality of life, increased lymphocyte proliferation (PHA) and IL-17 levels | Small sample size, no active control group | [243] |
Injuries/Pulmonary | 40 male veterans | Improved SF-36 total score, role limitations due to physical problems, role limitations due to emotional problems, social functioning, mental health, vitality, and pain; no significant change in FEV1, FVC, or FEV1/FVC | Small sample size, no active control group | [244] |
Injuries/Sport | 20 university athletes | Increased pain tolerance, improved mindful awareness, notable decrease in stress/anxiety scores | Small sample size, no active control group, diverse types of injuries | [245] |
Injuries/Wound | 49 healthy adults | Greater mindfulness increase correlated with reduced skin permeability (days 3–4); lower IL-8 and placental growth factor levels at 22 h | Small sample size, no significant overall effect | [246] |
Insomnia | 111 cancer patients with insomnia | Reduced sleep onset latency, wake after sleep onset, stress and mood disturbances; increased total sleep time; improved sleep quality and dysfunctional sleep beliefs | Small sample size, no control group, need for longer follow-up | [247] |
Interstitial lung disease | 19 elderly patients | Improved mood and reduced stress (POMS, PSS scores); no significant changes in respiratory symptoms, lung function, or exercise tolerance | Small sample size, no control group, and unmonitored adherence to home exercises | [248] |
Irritable Bowel Syndrome | 24 patients | Improved quality of life and reduced IBS severity | Small sample size | [249] |
Irritable Bowel Syndrome | 101 patients | 22.4% decrease in perceived stress, improved mental health, resilience, and quality of life, no significant impact on IBD symptoms or inflammatory biomarkers | Small sample size, no control for IBD severity indices | [250] |
Menopausal symptoms | 66 women, aged 47–62 | Significant improvements in menopause-specific quality of life, including physical, psychosocial, and sexual dimensions | Small sample size and short follow-up duration | [251] |
Menopausal symptoms | 118 women | Significant improvement in menopausal symptoms, quality of life across vasomotor, psychosocial, sexual, and physical domains | Quasi-experimental design, no randomized control group | [252] |
Menopausal symptoms | 197 women | Reduced total menopausal symptoms at 8 months, greater reduction in anxiety and depression | Both groups improved, BSRP had more psychological benefits | [253] |
Metabolic syndrome | 22 individuals (11 couples) | Wives showed greater increases in physical functioning and relationship satisfaction; no significant intervention effects for husbands. | Small sample size, unequal prevalence of metabolic syndrome in couples | [254] |
Multiple sclerosis | 48 female patients, Iran | Significant improvement in all subscales of quality of life (QOL) post-intervention and sustained at follow-up | Small sample size, single-gender study, limited to patients with low MS severity | [255] |
Multiple sclerosis | 25 patients, Netherlands | Decreased depressive symptoms by 29%, increased physical QOL by 36%, increased mental QOL by 43%, reduced fatigue by 11%, enhanced visuospatial memory processing | Small sample size, high dropout rate, no control group, reliance on self-reported measures | [256] |
Multiple sclerosis | 48 women, Iran | Depression reduced by 46.1%, anxiety reduced by 47.2%, stress reduced by 46.6% | Small sample size, short follow-up period | [257] |
Polycystic ovary syndrome | 60 women | Significant reduction in mental complications, interpersonal problems, non-pregnancy physical complications, pregnancy complications, sexual complications, and religious issues | Small sample size, short follow-up, high proportion of educated participants | [258] |
Psoriasis | 446 participants (10 studies) | Significant improvements in physical severity (3 studies), psychological outcomes (3 studies), and quality of life (1 study); mixed results across other studies with non-significant findings | Overall low quality of evidence, heterogeneity in study design, lack of validated outcome measures in some studies, and publication bias suspected | [259] |
PTSD | 50 women | Decreased stress, depression, anxiety, emotion dysregulation, PTSD symptoms, increased mindfulness, lower IL-6 levels | Small sample size, no control group, short follow-up, potential selection bias | [116] |
PTSD | 220 individuals (war trauma) | PTSD symptoms decreased (PCL-5 scores reduced from M = 38.58 to M = 20.59), SUDS scores significantly lowered | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, lack of quantitative measures for all segments | [260] |
PTSD | 30 children, adolescents | PTSD symptoms decreased by 60%, anxiety decreased by 30.5% | Small sample size, no control group, short follow-up period | [261] |
PTSD | 184 veterans | PTSD symptom reduction, depression reduction; those attending ≥6 sessions saw a 39.3% improvement in depression scores | Small sample size, high noncompletion rates | [262] |
Rheumatoid arthritis | 63 patients | At 6 months, significant improvement in psychological distress (35% reduction) and well-being, marginal improvement in depression and mindfulness | No significant changes at 2 months, small sample size, short follow-up period, no impact on RA disease activity | [263] |
Schizophrenia | 40 middle-aged and older patients | Improved Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) scores and reduced stress (DASS-stress subscale), no significant change in happiness (CHI) | Small effect size, no significant difference in happiness, limited evidence for broader applicability | [264] |
Schizophrenia | 137 patients | Significant increases in hope, psychological well-being, and functional recovery | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [265] |
Schizophrenia | 26 individuals | Significant decrease in perceived stress and negative affect, significant improvement in heart rate variability | No significant change in positive affect or subjective well-being, small sample size | [266] |
Somatic Symptom Disorder | 37 patients, mean age 37 years | Significant reductions in depression, anxiety, stress, and their severities; decreased number and severity of physical symptoms and overall SSD severity | Effective as complementary medicine, small sample size, no control group | [70] |
Stuttering | 56 adults who stutter | Improvements in stuttering, awareness, reactions, daily communication, quality of life, reduced anxiety, and increased life satisfaction | Small sample size, short follow-up | [267] |
Stress | 26 healthy individuals | Significant reduction in perceived stress; correlated with decreased gray matter density in the right basolateral amygdala | Small sample size, no control group, limited generalizability, short intervention duration | [5] |
Stress | 127 community residents | Decreased perceived stress, increased mindfulness and self-compassion | No control group, potential demographic bias | [8] |
Stress | 26 healthy practitioners and novices | Enhanced expression of genes related to energy metabolism, insulin secretion, and telomere maintenance; reduced expression of genes linked to inflammation and stress-related pathways | Small sample size, no control group, short-term study duration, need for further validation of molecular mechanisms | [60] |
Stress | 58 participants | Increased positivity bias in response to emotionally ambiguous signals | No control group, small sample size, short-term effects not observed, reminder issues for completing tasks promptly | [149] |
Stress | 84 participants | Increased likelihood of choosing reappraisal over distraction, improved sensitivity to interoceptive signals, enhanced well-being | Small sample size, lack of active control group, short duration of experiment | [268] |
Stress | 90 participants aged 26–55 | Improved psychological well-being, hardiness, coping strategies, interpersonal interactions, and professional self-realization in adult women | Small sample size, no control group, reliance on self-reported data, potential bias in interpreting long-term parental influence | [269] |
Stress | 32 healthy women | Increased functional connectivity within auditory and visual networks; improved attentional focus; enhanced sensory processing and reflective awareness of sensory experience | Small sample size, no control group, short duration of the experiment | [270] |
Stress | 15 professional singers | Decrease in cortisol and cortisone | Increase across the high-stress condition, small sample size | [271] |
Stress | 77 motorcyclists, 42 +/− 14 years | Decreased N1 amplitude, relative alpha power, cortisol; increased mismatch negativity, epinephrine, heart rate, DHEA-S | Small sample size, no control group | [272] |
Stress | 83 individuals | Daily increases in mindfulness predicted subsequent decreases in negative affect and increases in positive affect | Magnitude of effects varied substantially between individuals, small sample size | [273] |
Stress | 87 adults | 92% of participants strongly agreed the training was beneficial, 8% agreed | Small sample size, no control group, qualitative study | [274] |
Stress | 21 young adults (beginners) | Reductions in saliva cortisol, perceived mental stress at follow-up; improvements in general health perception, social functioning, vitality, and mental health/psychological well-being | Small sample size, high dropout rate, no control group | [275] |
Stress | 1 Buddhist monk | Significant increase in theta power, decrease in heart rate | Case study with a single participant limits generalizability | [276] |
Stress/Care | 29 healthcare professionals | 35% reduction in distress, 30% reduction in rumination, 20% decrease in negative affect, benefits sustained over 3 months | Small sample size, no control group, short follow-up period | [277] |
Stress/Care | Stress (61 parents of children with Autism) | Improvements in parental distress and parent–child dysfunctional interactions | Small sample size, no significant difference in depressive symptoms, anxiety, or life satisfaction | [278] |
Stress/Care | Stress (47 parents of toddlers with developmental delays) | Decreased self-reported parenting stress and cortisol awakening response, greatest changes observed between baseline and follow-up | Small sample size, no control group | [279] |
Stress/Care | Stress (100 psychiatric nurses) | Significant decreases in SCL-90, depression, anxiety, and Nursing Stress Scale scores | Short duration of study, no long-term follow-up, small sample size | [126] |
Stress/Care | Stress (67 nurses in Iran) | Significant increases in mortality awareness and decreases in interpersonal problems | Quasi-experimental design, small sample size, short follow-up duration | [127] |
Stress/Care | 72 caregivers (COVID-19) | Anxiety decreased by 20.7%, mental component summary increased by 22.9%, physical component summary increased by 18.2% | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up | [280] |
Stress/Care | 64 family caregivers | Stress reduced by 8.3%, sleep quality improved by 9%, mindful awareness increased by 5.0%, no significant change in caregiver burden | Small sample size, short follow-up period, primarily self-reported outcomes | [281] |
Stress/Care | 155 patients and caregivers | Reduced caregiver distress | No significant difference in patient QoL | [282] |
Stress/Care | 148 caregivers | Reduced mental health service use | No significant differences in medical service or support group use | [283] |
Stress/Care | 57 family caregivers | Significant improvements in perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and subjective caregiver burden | Small sample size, no control group | [284] |
Stress/Childbirth | 68 pregnant women | Significantly lower perceived stress during labor and pain intensity | No significant difference in fear of childbirth, active phase of labor, second stage of delivery, total length of delivery, Apgar score, or oxytocin consumption | [285] |
Stress/Childbirth | 46 pregnant women | Significant increase in breastfeeding self-efficacy at 1 and 4 months postpartum, higher continuation of exclusive breastfeeding | Small sample size | [286] |
Stress/Childbirth | 64 breastfeeding mothers | Decreased anxiety, postpartum distress; increased breastfeeding self-efficacy | Small sample size | [287] |
Stress/Education | 48 students | Significant reductions in perceived stress, anger, confusion, sadness, and salivary cortisol levels. | Small sample size, no control group, potential self-reporting bias, and short duration of the intervention. | [288] |
Stress/Education | 119 students | Increased mindfulness, increased self-compassion | No significant reductions in trait anxiety, the quasi-experimental design and the short duration | [289] |
Stress/Education | 58 students and teachers | Students: reduced stress, improved self-regulation, self-efficacy, and reduced interpersonal problems; teachers: increased mindfulness, reduced interpersonal problems | Small sample size, no active control, short-term follow-up | [290] |
Stress/Education | 90 students | Significant improvements in mindfulness, psychological distress, perceived stress, and life satisfaction scores | Small sample size, no control group, short intervention duration, self-reported measures. | [291] |
Stress/Education | 302 medical students | Decreased Total Mood Disturbance by 17.8%, significant improvements in tension–anxiety, confusion–bewilderment, fatigue–inertia, and vigor–activity subscales | Initial baseline differences between groups | [292] |
Stress/Education | 72 nursing students | Significantly reduced stress biomarkers | Did not achieve statistically significant reductions in self-reported psychological stress during examinations | [293] |
Stress/Education | 49 college students | A 33% reduction in perceived stress and nearly 40% reduction in depression, anxiety, stress; increased alpha band power in frontal and occipital lobes observed in EEG, particularly during stress-inducing tasks | Small sample size, short intervention period | [294] |
Stress/Media | Stress (26 middle-aged women) | Increased self-acceptance, purpose in life, relations with others, mindfulness, psychological flexibility, and well-being | Small sample size, no control group, self-selection bias, online delivery limitations | [295] |
Stress/Media | 131 participants | Decreased perceived stress, increased positive affect; individuals with lower baseline mindfulness exhibited greater overall improvement | Small sample size, no control group, short duration of the experiment, potential bias | [296] |
Stress/Medical interventions | 104 patients undergoing GI endoscopy | Reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate; improved perception of the procedure | Small sample size, no control group for comparison, short duration of the intervention | [297] |
Stress/Medical interventions | 30 patients undergoing cerebral angiography | Stable cortisol levels, reduced systolic blood pressure, decreased stress in patients with high fear levels | Small sample size, no control group, short duration of the intervention | [298] |
Stress/Medical interventions | 209 women undergoing TUGOR | Lower vaginal pain, higher satisfaction with pain control | No significant differences in psychological scores or stress biomarkers | [299] |
Stress/Medical interventions | 80 adults (dental procedures) | Significantly reduced discomfort | Small sample size, no control group, short duration | [300] |
Stress/Medical interventions | 100 women with breast cancer (surgical procedures) | Increased autonomy (+17.6%), environmental control (+11.8%), personal growth (+11.2%), positive relationships (+9.4%), goals in life (+12.6%), self-acceptance (+21.6%); improved sleep quality (37.0%); favorable views on oophorectomy (+14%) and mastectomy (+17%). | Small sample size | [301] |
Stress/Military | 49 Chinese military recruits | Improved general health, and reduced perceived stress at 12-week follow-up. | Small sample size and short follow-up duration. | [302] |
Stress/Military | 39 ROK Navy crew | Decreased perceived stress by 15%, anxiety by 41%; improved psychological well-being by 23%; no change in depression | Small sample size, non-equivalent control group, limited generalizability | [303] |
Stress/Military | 30 veterans | Reduction in perceived stress and depression; improved sleep quality; high satisfaction and compliance | Single-group design, no control group, small sample size | [304] |
Stress/Trauma | 63 vulnerable women | Perceived stress decreased by 20.9% | Small sample size, quasi-experimental design, short follow-up period | [305] |
Stress/Trauma | 24 LGB individuals | Perceived stress decreased by 23% in women and 40% in men, minority stress decreased by 12% in women | Small sample size, lack of control group, pilot study design, short follow-up period | [306] |
Stress/Trauma | 24 victims of gun violence | Improvements in trauma, depression, sleep quality, and life satisfaction | Uncontrolled, non-randomized trial, small sample size | [307] |
Stress/Trauma | 112 women with early life abuse | Increased temporal summation of heat pain intensity, reduced cortisol AUC, improved depression and emotion regulation abilities | Small sample size, no long-term follow-up, reliance on self-reported measures | [113] |
Stress/Work | 42 healthy working adults | Decreased perceived stress, increased mindfulness, improved sleep quality | Small sample size, use of a wait-list control group | [308] |
Stress/Work | 122 prison guards | Significant reduction in stress reactions, improved coping strategies, and better communication skills; in Kula prison, significant positive changes in attitudes toward detainees | Small sample size, variable significance across different prisons, no long-term follow-up, lack of control group, and potential bias in self-reported measures | [309] |
Stress/Work | 247 university employees | Increased job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, perceived procedural justice, and trust in senior management; no significant change in psychological strain | Small sample size, low awareness of interventions, cross-sectional data, lack of long-term follow-up, potential response bias | [310] |
Stress/Work | 144 managers | Decreased perceived work-related stress (by 0.72), negative affect (by 0.93), somatic complaints intensity (by 0.69), sickness absence (by 0.69); increased self-esteem (by 1.25) and positive affect (by 0.43) | No effect on the frequency of somatic complaints, need for longer follow-up and consideration of individual differences in stress responses | [311] |
Stress/Work | 75 nurses and midwives | Increased sexual satisfaction | No significant effect on occupational stress and marital satisfaction, small sample size | [225] |
Stress/Work | 126 individuals | Improvements in perceived stress, work engagement, overall quality of life, physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and environmental | Depression and anxiety improved but did not survive Bonferroni correction; small sample size | [312] |
Stroke, Dementia, Multiple Sclerosis, Spinal Cord Injury | 906 participants (17 trials) | Stroke: improved gait, balance, perception of recovery, and quality of life. Dementia: reduction in stress, anxiety, sadness, depression, improved balance and cognitive function. Multiple Sclerosis: reduced spasticity, fatigue, improved balance, general health perception, and quality of life. Spinal Cord Injury: reduced effort in upper limbs, improved spasticity and mental well-being | Stroke: variability in intervention protocols. Dementia: some studies showed stable depressive symptoms and agitation. Multiple Sclerosis: mixed results in depression and constipation. Spinal Cord Injury: short-term improvements only, small sample sizes | [313] |
Systemic lupus erythematosus | 26 SLE patients | Improved quality of life, reduced psychological inflexibility in pain and SLE-related shame, reduced SLE symptoms, decreased depression | Small sample size, further research needed for long-term effects | [314] |
Systemic lupus erythematosus | 92 SLE patients | Reductions in pain, psychological dysfunction; improved perceived physical function and psychological function at 9-month follow-up | Small sample size, limited long-term maintenance of benefits | [315] |
Systemic sclerosis | 32 patients | Significant improvement in anger control and significant improvement in anger control and expression; no significant changes in physical functionality, anxiety, depression | Small sample size, non-random assignment, short duration, lack of significant quantitative improvements in most variables | [316] |
Tension headaches | 60 patients | GSI decreased by 55.2% post-intervention and 43.2% at follow-up, perceived stress decreased by 25.1% post-intervention and 20.4% at follow-up | Small sample size, limited follow-up duration | [317] |
Thalassemia | 66 patients | Rejection sensitivity decreased by 18.7%, resilience increased by 6.5% | Small sample size, short duration of experiment | [318] |
Ulcerative colitis | 47 patients | Reduced psychosocial stress, decreased physical symptoms, and improved quality of life; enhanced disease acceptance, stress management, self-confidence, and social participation | Small sample size, no control group, short experiment duration, potential self-reporting bias, and limited long-term data | [319] |
Ulcerative colitis | 55 adults | Reduced stress in flaring patients, prevented QOL drop during flares | Did not affect flare-up rate/severity, small sample size, short duration | [320] |
Ulcerative colitis | 60 patients | At 3 months: improvement in SF-36 physical function, reduction in BSI anxiety | No significant long-term effects at 12 months, small sample size | [321] |
Unhealthy coping/Hypersexuality | 88 bisexual men, with childhood sexual abuse | Unprotected anal insertive sex episodes reduced by 74%, depressive symptoms reduced by 43%, PTSD symptoms reduced by 56% | Small sample size, potential for bias due to self-reported measures | [85] |
Unhealthy coping/Smoking | 76 adult ex-smokers | Reductions in perceived stress and higher rates of smoking abstinence, reduced relapse rates | Small sample size, lack of long-term follow-up, potential self-reporting bias | [82] |
Unhealthy coping/Smoking | 474 individuals (4 trials) | 25.2% of BSRP participants remained abstinent for more than 4 months compared to 13.6% in the usual care therapy group | Limited number of trials, need for longer follow-up periods | [322] |
BSRP Name | Short Description | BSRP Category |
---|---|---|
PsychoEducation, Paced Respiration, and Relaxation (PEPRR) | Integrates psychological training, regulated breathing techniques, and relaxation exercises to alleviate distress and its related health issues | Recoping, Refocusing, Re-education |
Animal-Assisted Therapy | Utilizes interactions with specially trained animals, mainly dogs, to improve emotional well-being and reduce symptoms of stress and depression | Refocusing |
Music Therapy | Employs structured music-based interventions delivered by certified professionals to achieve individualized therapeutic goals | Refocusing |
Singing | Uses vocal expression as a means to manage emotional stress and promote psychological well-being | Recoping, Refocusing |
Distraction | Shifts focus away from stressors to engaging activities such as games, creative pursuits, or physical exercise to mitigate stress responses | Refocusing |
Transcendental Meditation (TM) | A mantra-based meditation technique rooted in religious-neutral Hindu traditions, involving initial guidance and independent practice for mental tranquility | Refocusing |
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) | Combines mindfulness meditation, body scanning, and yoga, derived from religious-neutral Buddhist practices, to enhance present-moment awareness and reduce stress | Recoping, Refocusing, Re-education |
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) | Blends mindfulness practices with cognitive–behavioral therapy elements, based on religious-neutral Buddhist principles, to prevent depressive relapse and manage stress | Recoping, Refocusing, Re-education |
The Teutsch IDEAL Method | Encompasses behavioral psychogenetics, principles of human physics, and scientific interpretations of religious-neutral spiritual and moral teachings from the Bible | Recoping, Refocusing, Re-education |
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) | Integrates elements of various psychological approaches, focusing on reprocessing traumatic memories and altering self-perceptions | Refocusing |
Tai Chi | Involves gentle, mindful movements promoting structural alignment, flexibility, strength, and natural breathing, rooted in ancient Chinese martial arts | Refocusing |
Loving-Kindness and Compassion Meditation | Focuses on cultivating unconditional kindness and empathy through the repetition of positive affirmations and compassionate thoughts, grounded in religious-neutral Buddhist traditions | Refocusing |
Inquiry-Based Stress Reduction (IBSR, The Work) | Systematically challenges stressful thoughts by exploring them through a structured series of questions and cognitive reframing | Refocusing, Re-education |
Comprehensive Lifestyle Modification Programs (CLMPs) | Incorporates yoga, stress management techniques, mindfulness, herbal remedies, communication skills, self-awareness, and culinary education to promote holistic well-being | Refocusing |
Ngoma | Combines meditation, yoga, or prayer with rhythmic dance to traditional Congolese music, rooted in religious-neutral Central and South African cultural practices | Refocusing |
Stress Management Education | Offers a wide array of strategies, including counseling, academic support, physical activity guidance, and relationship enhancement activities, to manage and reduce stress | Recoping, Refocusing |
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Shchaslyvyi, A.Y.; Antonenko, S.V.; Telegeev, G.D. Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081077
Shchaslyvyi AY, Antonenko SV, Telegeev GD. Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(8):1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081077
Chicago/Turabian StyleShchaslyvyi, Aladdin Y., Svitlana V. Antonenko, and Gennadiy D. Telegeev. 2024. "Comprehensive Review of Chronic Stress Pathways and the Efficacy of Behavioral Stress Reduction Programs (BSRPs) in Managing Diseases" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 8: 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081077