Alternative Fuels for Agriculture Sustainability: Carbon Footprint and Economic Feasibility
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- ▪
- Making farm income more profitable;
- ▪
- Maintaining a sustainable environment, such as:
- (a)
- Improving and protecting soil quality;
- (b)
- Reducing dependence on non-renewable resources, such as artificial fertilizers, fuel, and pesticides;
- (c)
- Achieving a minimal impact on water quality, safety, wildlife, and other environmental resources.
- ▪
- Strengthening farming communities and families [11]
2. Conventional Fuels and Challenges
3. Alternative Fuels
3.1. First-Generation Biofuels
3.1.1. Biofuel Types According to First Generation
- (a)
- Bioalcohols: Through the alcohol fermentation of cellulose, glucose, carbohydrates, starches, and other sugars, enzymes and microbes help produce bioalcohol. Bioethanol, biomethanol, biopropanol, and biobutanol are the other examples of bioalcohols [43].
- (b)
- Biodiesel: Diesel produced from long-chain fatty acid esters found in plants, animals, or crops is biodiesel. A methyl, ethyl, or propyl ester is formed by chemically combining lipids like animal fat (tallow), soybean oil, or other vegetable oils with alcohol [44].
- (c)
- Green diesel: Hydrotreating the vegetable oil triglycerides with hydrogen is another potential biosource of energy. Sunflower, soybean, and palm oils are utilised as feedstock for manufacturing. Three immediate reactions are involved in the hydrotreating process, namely decarbonylation (DCO), hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), and decarboxylation (DCO2) [45,46].
- (d)
- Solid biofuels: Solid biofuel is the most functional and significant bioenergy carrier. Some commonly utilised biofuels include wood, leaves, sawdust, and animal manure [47].
3.1.2. Bioethanol
3.2. Second-Generation Biofuel
3.2.1. Second-Generation Biofuel Is of the Following Types
- (a)
- Ethanol cellulosic: This biofuel is produced by fermenting sugar sourced from cellulose and polyose, a lignocellulose compound.
- (b)
- Algae-based biofuel: Algae can flourish in open and closed systems (like lakes, ponds, etc.). Algae has the advanced ability to be modified into a variety of biofuels, including biodiesel, biogas, and hydrogen [58]. The biomass concentration and extraction techniques include aggregation, centrifugation, purification, floatation, and flocculation [42].
- (c)
- Alcohol: mixed alcohols or methanol are recovered from syngas via catalytic synthesis. By fermenting biomass with a specific type of microbe, syngas can also produce alcohol [59].
Generation | Biomass Type | Feedstocks Used | Production Technology | Process | Products | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Second (Non-edible-based) Biofuels | Non-food biomass | Non-edible oil seeds, waste cooking oil. | Chemical | Acid pre-treatment | Alcohol, dimethylfuran | [60,61,62,63,64] |
Alkali pre-treatment | ||||||
Organosolv pre-treatment ionic | Cellulosic ethanol, bio-SNG | |||||
liquids | ||||||
Biochemical production | Enzymatic hydrolysis | |||||
Forest residues (Saw dust, thinned wood, stem, leaves, pulp waste) | Physical pre-treatment of feedstock | Milling | Biofuels such as biobutanol, | [63,64,65] | ||
Microwave | ||||||
Mechanical extrusion | bioethanol, biodiesel, syngas | |||||
Pulse electric field | ||||||
Thermochemical | Direct combustion | Biogas | ||||
Gasification | ||||||
Liquification | ||||||
Liquification | Liquid fuel | |||||
Ligno-cellulosic feedstock materials (agricultural residues): cereal straw, sugarcane bagasse, forest residues. | Hydrolysis | Fermentation | Ethanol, butanol | |||
Pyrolysis | Refining | Bio-oil | ||||
Gasification | Condensation/synthesis | Fischer–Tropsch liquids (FTL) | [63,65,66] | |||
DME | ||||||
MeOH | ||||||
Mixed alcohol | [63,64,67,68,69] | |||||
Wet biomass | Hydro-thermal upgrading | Refining | Green diesel | [70] | ||
Food biomass | Vegetable oil | Transesterification | Refining | Biodiesel | [70] | |
Sugars | Fermentation | Refining | Biodiesel | [70] | ||
Starch cereals | Hydrolysis | Bioethanol |
- (d)
- (e)
- Natural gas produced synthetically (bio-SNG): Anaerobic digestion and some bacteria can produce biogas. Carbonic acid gas and mash gas combine to create this biogas. In addition to being used to refuel natural gas cylinders, biologically derived SNG is also employed in cars in the form of LNG and CNG [73].
3.2.2. Green or Biodiesel
3.3. Third-Generation Biofuel
3.3.1. Production of Biofuels Based on Algae
3.3.2. Biohythane
3.3.3. Biomethane
3.4. Fourth-Generation Biofuel
3.4.1. Biobutanol
3.4.2. Biohydrogen
4. Role of Alternative Fuels
4.1. In Sustainable Agriculture
4.2. In Reducing Carbon Footprint and Attaining Carbon Neutrality
5. Global Status of Alternative Fuels
6. Applications
7. Environmental Impact and Economic Feasibility
8. Shortcomings of Alternative Fuels
9. Conclusions and Future Scope
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Biofuels Classification | Feedstock’s | Production Process | Products | Microorganisms Used | Challenges | Applications | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First-generation biofuels (based on edible food sources) | Vegetable oils (peanut oil), sugar crops and sweeteners, switch grass, starch crops | Transesterification | Bioethanol | Escherichia coli, Zymomonas mobilis, Caldicellulosiruptor bescii, Trichoderma reesei | Limitation in feed stock, issues in food chain security | Applicable for use in electricity generation, vehicle fuel. | [80,81,82,83] |
Biodiesel | |||||||
Fermentation | Methanol | ||||||
Biogas | |||||||
Second-generation biofuels (Based on non- edible food sources) | Waste of Wood Municipal Solid Waste Forest/agricultural residues of non- edible crop plants such as Calotropis gigantia, Jatropha curcas | Hydrogenation | Butanol Vegetable Oil Mixed alcohols Cellulosic ethanol Jet fuels Dimethyl-furan Alcohol | Escherichia coli, Cryptococcus vishniaccii | Efficiency is very low; feedstock production cost is comparatively high | Used in chemical industries, specially designed for CI engines | [84,85] |
Third-generation biofuels (based on algae) | Autotrophic aquatic organism (algae) | Gasification | Biodiesel and green diesel (1.64 billion gallons) Ethanol (5.4 billion liters) Propanol Butanol | Pseudomonas putida | Used in transportation, in home as heating oil. | [38,86,87,88,89] | |
Pyrolysis | |||||||
Fourth generation (biofuels based on microalgae) | Cyanophyceae, algae-based biomass, Bacillus Escherichia coli | Hydrolysis | Bio-butanol (15 million metric ton) Bio-hydrogen (1200 TJ) Synthetic biofuels Bio-methane (3.5 Mtoe) | Clostridium acetobutylicum | Usage in transportation fuel, as IC engine fuel. | [80,90,91,92,93] | |
Fischer–Tropsch Fermentation | |||||||
Hydrolysis |
Countries | Biofuel Produced (In Petajoules) |
---|---|
USA | 1435.8 |
Brazil | 839.5 |
Indonesia | 311.9 |
China | 142.7 |
Germany | 121.2 |
France | 107 |
Thailand | 89.8 |
Argentina | 85.6 |
Netherlands | 84.6 |
Spain | 71.9 |
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Mathur, S.; Waswani, H.; Singh, D.; Ranjan, R. Alternative Fuels for Agriculture Sustainability: Carbon Footprint and Economic Feasibility. AgriEngineering 2022, 4, 993-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering4040063
Mathur S, Waswani H, Singh D, Ranjan R. Alternative Fuels for Agriculture Sustainability: Carbon Footprint and Economic Feasibility. AgriEngineering. 2022; 4(4):993-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering4040063
Chicago/Turabian StyleMathur, Shivangi, Hunny Waswani, Deeksha Singh, and Rajiv Ranjan. 2022. "Alternative Fuels for Agriculture Sustainability: Carbon Footprint and Economic Feasibility" AgriEngineering 4, no. 4: 993-1015. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering4040063