Journal of Eye Movement Research

19 pages, 537 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking the Impact of Age and Dimensional Shifts on Situation Model Updating During Narrative Text Comprehension

by César Campos-Rojas and Romualdo Ibáñez-Orellana

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050048 - 26 Sep 2025

Studies on the relationship between age and situation model updating during narrative text reading have mainly used response or reading times. This study enhances previous measures (working memory, recognition probes, and comprehension) by incorporating eye-tracking techniques to compare situation model updating between young [...] Read more.

Studies on the relationship between age and situation model updating during narrative text reading have mainly used response or reading times. This study enhances previous measures (working memory, recognition probes, and comprehension) by incorporating eye-tracking techniques to compare situation model updating between young and older Chilean adults. The study included 82 participants (40 older adults and 42 young adults) who read two narrative texts under three conditions (no shift, spatial shift, and character shift) using a between-subject (age) and within-subject (dimensional change) design. The results show that, while differences in working memory capacity were observed between the groups, these differences did not impact situation model comprehension. Younger adults performed better in recognition tests regardless of updating conditions. Eye-tracking data showed increased fixation times for dimensional shifts and longer reading times in older adults, with no interaction between age and dimensional shifts. Full article

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49 pages, 2745 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Framework for Eye Tracking: Methods, Tools, Applications, and Cross-Platform Evaluation

by Govind Ram Chhimpa, Ajay Kumar, Sunita Garhwal, Dhiraj Kumar, Niyaz Ahmad Wani, Mudasir Ahmad Wani and Kashish Ara Shakil

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050047 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Eye tracking, a fundamental process in gaze analysis, involves measuring the point of gaze or eye motion. It is crucial in numerous applications, including human–computer interaction (HCI), education, health care, and virtual reality. This study delves into eye-tracking concepts, terminology, performance parameters, applications, [...] Read more.

Eye tracking, a fundamental process in gaze analysis, involves measuring the point of gaze or eye motion. It is crucial in numerous applications, including human–computer interaction (HCI), education, health care, and virtual reality. This study delves into eye-tracking concepts, terminology, performance parameters, applications, and techniques, focusing on modern and efficient approaches such as video-oculography (VOG)-based systems, deep learning models for gaze estimation, wearable and cost-effective devices, and integration with virtual/augmented reality and assistive technologies. These contemporary methods, prevalent for over two decades, significantly contribute to developing cutting-edge eye-tracking applications. The findings underscore the significance of diverse eye-tracking techniques in advancing eye-tracking applications. They leverage machine learning to glean insights from existing data, enhance decision-making, and minimize the need for manual calibration during tracking. Furthermore, the study explores and recommends strategies to address limitations/challenges inherent in specific eye-tracking methods and applications. Finally, the study outlines future directions for leveraging eye tracking across various developed applications, highlighting its potential to continue evolving and enriching user experiences. Full article

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17 pages, 1601 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microsaccade Activity During Visuospatial Working Memory in Early-Stage Parkinson’s Disease

by Katherine Farber, Linjing Jiang, Mario Michiels, Ignacio Obeso and Hoi-Chung Leung

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050046 - 22 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Fixational saccadic eye movements (microsaccades) have been associated with cognitive processes, especially in tasks requiring spatial attention and memory. Alterations in oculomotor and cognitive control are commonly observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD), though it is unclear to what extent microsaccade activity is affected. [...] Read more.

Fixational saccadic eye movements (microsaccades) have been associated with cognitive processes, especially in tasks requiring spatial attention and memory. Alterations in oculomotor and cognitive control are commonly observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD), though it is unclear to what extent microsaccade activity is affected. We acquired eye movement data from sixteen participants with early-stage PD and thirteen older healthy controls to examine the effects of dopamine modulation on microsaccade activity during the delay period of a spatial working memory task. Some microsaccade characteristics, like amplitude and duration, were moderately larger in the PD participants when they were “on” their dopaminergic medication than healthy controls, or when they were “off” medication, while PD participants exhibited microsaccades with a linear amplitude–velocity relationship comparable to controls. Both groups showed similar microsaccade rate patterns across task events, with most participants showing a horizontal bias in microsaccade direction during the delay period regardless of the remembered target location. Overall, our data suggest minimal involvement of microsaccades during visuospatial working memory maintenance under conditions without explicit attentional cues in both subject groups. However, moderate effects of PD-related dopamine deficiency were observed for microsaccade size during working memory maintenance. Full article

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14 pages, 3698 KB

Open AccessArticle

Active Gaze Guidance and Pupil Dilation Effects Through Subject Engagement in Ophthalmic Imaging

by David Harings, Niklas Bauer, Damian Mendroch, Uwe Oberheide and Holger Lubatschowski

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050045 - 19 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Modern ophthalmic imaging methods such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) typically require expensive scanner components to direct the light beam across the retina while the patient’s gaze remains fixed. This proof-of-concept experiment investigates whether the patient’s natural eye movements can replace mechanical scanning [...] Read more.

Modern ophthalmic imaging methods such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) typically require expensive scanner components to direct the light beam across the retina while the patient’s gaze remains fixed. This proof-of-concept experiment investigates whether the patient’s natural eye movements can replace mechanical scanning by guiding the gaze along predefined patterns. An infrared fundus camera setup was used with nine healthy adults (aged 20–57) who completed tasks comparing passive viewing of moving patterns to actively tracing them by drawing using a touchpad interface. The active task involved participant-controlled target movement with real-time color feedback for accurate pattern tracing. Results showed that active tracing significantly increased pupil diameter by an average of 17.8% (range 8.9–43.6%; p < 0.001) and reduced blink frequency compared to passive viewing. More complex patterns led to greater pupil dilation, confirming the link between cognitive load and physiological response. These findings demonstrate that patient driven gaze guidance can stabilize gaze, reduce blinking, and naturally dilate the pupil. These conditions might enhance the quality of scannerless OCT or other imaging techniques benefiting from guided gaze and larger pupils. There could be benefits for children and people with compliance issues, although further research is needed to consider cognitive load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)

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25 pages, 6169 KB

Open AccessArticle

Processing Written Language in Video Games: An Eye-Tracking Study on Subtitled Instructions

by Haiting Lan, Sixin Liao, Jan-Louis Kruger and Michael J. Richardson

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050044 - 17 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Written language is a common component among the multimodal representations that help players construct meanings and guide actions in video games. However, how players process texts in video games remains underexplored. To address this, the current exploratory eye-tracking study examines how players processed [...] Read more.

Written language is a common component among the multimodal representations that help players construct meanings and guide actions in video games. However, how players process texts in video games remains underexplored. To address this, the current exploratory eye-tracking study examines how players processed subtitled instructions and resultant game performance. Sixty-four participants were recruited to play a videogame set in a foggy desert, where they were guided by subtitled instructions to locate, corral, and contain robot agents (targets). These instructions were manipulated into three modalities: visual-only (with subtitled instructions only), auditory only (with spoken instructions), and visual–auditory (with both subtitled and spoken instructions). The instructions were addressed to participants (as relevant subtitles) or their AI teammates (as irrelevant subtitles). Subtitle-level results of eye movements showed that participants primarily focused on the relevant subtitles, as evidenced by more fixations and higher dwell time percentages. Moreover, the word-level results indicate that participants showed lower skipping rates, more fixations, and higher dwell time percentages on words loaded with immediate action-related information, especially in the absence of audio. No significant differences were found in player performance across conditions. The findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of subtitle processing in video games and, more broadly, text processing in multimedia contexts. Implications for future research on digital literacy and computer-mediated text processing are discussed. Full article

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24 pages, 3314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Entropy as a Lens: Exploring Visual Behavior Patterns in Architects

by Renate Delucchi Danhier, Barbara Mertins, Holger Mertins and Gerold Schneider

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050043 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 255

Abstract

This study examines how architectural expertise shapes visual perception, extending the “Seeing for Speaking” hypothesis into a non-linguistic domain. Specifically, it investigates whether architectural training influences unconscious visual processing of architectural content. Using eye-tracking, 48 architects and 48 laypeople freely viewed 15 still [...] Read more.

This study examines how architectural expertise shapes visual perception, extending the “Seeing for Speaking” hypothesis into a non-linguistic domain. Specifically, it investigates whether architectural training influences unconscious visual processing of architectural content. Using eye-tracking, 48 architects and 48 laypeople freely viewed 15 still images of built, mixed, and natural environments. Visual behavior was analyzed using Shannon’s entropy scores based on dwell times within 16 × 16 grids during the first six seconds of viewing. Results revealed distinct visual attention patterns between groups. Architects showed lower entropy, indicating more focused and systematic gaze behavior, and their attention was consistently drawn to built structures. In contrast, laypeople exhibited more variable and less organized scanning patterns, with greater individual differences. Moreover, architects demonstrated higher intra-group similarity in their gaze behavior, suggesting a shared attentional schema shaped by professional training. These findings highlight that domain-specific expertise deeply influences perceptual processing, resulting in systematic and efficient attention allocation. Entropy-based metrics proved effective in capturing these differences, offering a robust tool for quantifying expert vs. non-expert visual strategies in architectural cognition. The visual patterns exhibited by architects are interpreted to reflect a “Grammar of Space”, i.e., a structured way of visually parsing spatial elements. Full article

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20 pages, 1902 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Visual Style Shapes Tourism Advertising Effectiveness: Eye-Tracking Insights into Traditional and Modern Chinese Ink Paintings

by Fulong Liu, Xiheng Shao, Zhengwei Tao, Nurul Hanim Md Romainoor and Mohammad Khizal Mohamed Saat

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050042 - 12 Sep 2025

Viewed by 310

Abstract

This study investigates how traditional versus modern Chinese ink painting styles in tourism advertisements affect viewers’ visual attention, aesthetic evaluations, and tourism intentions. Using eye-tracking experiments combined with surveys and interviews, the researchers conducted a mixed-design experiment with 80 Chinese college students. Results [...] Read more.

This study investigates how traditional versus modern Chinese ink painting styles in tourism advertisements affect viewers’ visual attention, aesthetic evaluations, and tourism intentions. Using eye-tracking experiments combined with surveys and interviews, the researchers conducted a mixed-design experiment with 80 Chinese college students. Results indicate that traditional ink-style advertisements attracted longer total fixation durations, higher aesthetic evaluations, and stronger cultural resonance in natural landscape contexts, while modern ink-style advertisements captured initial attention more quickly and performed better aesthetically in urban settings. Qualitative analyses further revealed cultural familiarity and aesthetic resonance underpinning preferences for traditional style, whereas modern style mainly attracted attention through novelty and creativity. These findings expand Cultural Schema Theory and the aesthetic processing model within advertising research, suggesting practical strategies for tourism advertising to match visual styles appropriately with destination types and audience characteristics to enhance promotional effectiveness. Full article

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12 pages, 951 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Movement Impairment in Women Undergoing Chemotherapy

by Milena Edite Casé de Oliveira, José Marcos Nascimento de Sousa, Gerlane Da Silva Vieira Torres, Ruanna Priscila Silva de Brito, Nathalia dos Santos Negreiros, Bianca da Nóbrega Tomaz Trombetta, Kedma Anne Lima Gomes Alexandrino, Waleska Fernanda Souto Nóbrega, Letícia Lorena Soares Silva Polimeni, Catarina Cavalcanti Braga, Cristiane Maria Silva de Souza Lima, Thiago P. Fernandes and Natanael Antonio dos Santos

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050041 - 11 Sep 2025

Viewed by 200

Abstract

The assessment of visual attention is important in visual and cognitive neuroscience, providing objective measures for researchers and clinicians. This study investigated the effects of chemotherapy on eye movements in women with breast cancer. Twelve women with breast cancer and twelve healthy controls [...] Read more.

The assessment of visual attention is important in visual and cognitive neuroscience, providing objective measures for researchers and clinicians. This study investigated the effects of chemotherapy on eye movements in women with breast cancer. Twelve women with breast cancer and twelve healthy controls aged between 33 and 59 years completed a visual search task, identifying an Arabic number among 79 alphabetic letters. Test duration, fixation duration, total fixation duration, and total visit duration were recorded. Compared to healthy controls, women with breast cancer exhibited significantly longer mean fixation duration [t = 4.54, p < 0.00]; mean total fixation duration [t = 2.41, p < 0.02]; mean total visitation duration [t = 2.05, p < 0.05]; and total test time [t = 2.32, p < 0.03]. Additionally, positive correlations were observed between the number of chemotherapy cycles and the eye tracking parameters. These results suggest the possibility of slower information processing in women experiencing acute effects of chemotherapy. However, further studies are needed to clarify this relationship. Full article

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28 pages, 5366 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interpretable Quantification of Scene-Induced Driver Visual Load: Linking Eye-Tracking Behavior to Road Scene Features via SHAP Analysis

by Jie Ni, Yifu Shao, Yiwen Guo and Yongqi Gu

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050040 - 9 Sep 2025

Viewed by 375

Abstract

Road traffic accidents remain a major global public health concern, where complex urban driving environments significantly elevate drivers’ visual load and accident risks. Unlike existing research that adopts a macro perspective by considering multiple factors such as the driver, vehicle, and road, this [...] Read more.

Road traffic accidents remain a major global public health concern, where complex urban driving environments significantly elevate drivers’ visual load and accident risks. Unlike existing research that adopts a macro perspective by considering multiple factors such as the driver, vehicle, and road, this study focuses on the driver’s visual load, a key safety factor, and its direct source—the driver’s visual environment. We have developed an interpretable framework combining computer vision and machine learning to quantify how road scene features influence oculomotor behavior and scene-induced visual load, establishing a complete and interpretable link between scene features, eye movement behavior, and visual load. Using the DR(eye)VE dataset, visual attention demand is established through occlusion experiments and confirmed to correlate with eye-tracking metrics. K-means clustering is applied to classify visual load levels based on discriminative oculomotor features, while semantic segmentation extracts quantifiable road scene features such as the Green Visibility Index, Sky Visibility Index and Street Canyon Enclosure. Among multiple machine learning models (Random Forest, Ada-Boost, XGBoost, and SVM), XGBoost demonstrates optimal performance in visual load detection. SHAP analysis reveals critical thresholds: the probability of high visual load increases when pole density exceeds 0.08%, signage surpasses 0.55%, or buildings account for more than 14%; while blink duration/rate decrease when street enclosure exceeds 38% or road congestion goes beyond 25%, indicating elevated visual load. The proposed framework provides actionable insights for urban design and driver assistance systems, advancing traffic safety through data-driven optimization of road environments. Full article

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21 pages, 1436 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Digital Eye Strain: Binocular Vision Anomalies, Ocular Surface Changes, and the Need for Objective Assessment

by Maria João Barata, Pedro Aguiar, Andrzej Grzybowski, André Moreira-Rosário and Carla Lança

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050039 - 5 Sep 2025

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Abstract

(1) Background: This study investigates the impact of digital device usage on the visual system, with a focus on binocular vision. It also highlights the importance of objective assessment in accurately diagnosing and guiding therapeutic approaches for Digital Eye Strain Syndrome (DESS). (2) [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study investigates the impact of digital device usage on the visual system, with a focus on binocular vision. It also highlights the importance of objective assessment in accurately diagnosing and guiding therapeutic approaches for Digital Eye Strain Syndrome (DESS). (2) Methods: A comprehensive narrative review was conducted to synthesize existing evidence. The methodological quality of observational and case–control studies was assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa scale, while randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were evaluated using the Cochrane risk-of-bias (RoB 2) tool. (3) Results: Fifteen articles were included in this review, with a predominant focus on binocular vision anomalies, particularly accommodative and vergence dysfunctions, as well as ocular surface anomalies related to DESS. Clinical assessments relied primarily on symptom-based questionnaires, which represent a significant limitation. The included studies were largely observational, with a lack of longitudinal and RCTs. In contrast, research in dry eye disease has been more comprehensive, with multiple RCTs already conducted. (4) Therefore, it is essential to develop validated objective metrics that support accurate clinical diagnosis and guide evidence-based interventions. Conclusions: It remains unclear whether changes in binocular vision are a cause or consequence of DESS. However, prolonged screen time can exacerbate pre-existing binocular vision anomalies due to continuous strain on convergence and accommodation, leading to symptoms. Future research should prioritize prospective longitudinal studies and well-designed RCTs that integrate objective clinical measures to elucidate causal relationships and improve diagnostic and therapeutic frameworks. Full article

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24 pages, 4533 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reading Assessment and Eye Movement Analysis in Bilateral Central Scotoma Due to Age-Related Macular Degeneration

by Polona Zaletel Benda, Grega Jakus, Jaka Sodnik, Nadica Miljković, Ilija Tanasković, Smilja Stokanović, Andrej Meglič, Nataša Vidovič Valentinčič and Polona Jaki Mekjavić

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050038 - 30 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates reading performances and eye movements in individuals with eccentric fixation due to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Overall, 17 individuals with bilateral AMD (7 males; mean age 77.47 ± 5.96 years) and 17 controls (10 males; mean age 72.18 ± 5.98 [...] Read more.

This study investigates reading performances and eye movements in individuals with eccentric fixation due to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Overall, 17 individuals with bilateral AMD (7 males; mean age 77.47 ± 5.96 years) and 17 controls (10 males; mean age 72.18 ± 5.98 years) were assessed for reading visual acuity (VA), reading speed (Minnesota low vision reading chart in Slovene, MNREAD-SI), and near contrast sensitivity (Pelli-Robson). Microperimetry (NIDEK MP-3) was used to evaluate preferential retinal locus (PRL) location and fixation stability. Eye movements were recorded with Tobii Pro-glasses 2 and analyzed for reading duration, saccade amplitude, peak velocity, number of saccades, saccade duration, and fixation duration. Individuals with AMD exhibited significantly reduced reading indices (worse reading VA (p < 0.001), slower reading (p < 0.001), and lower near contrast sensitivity (p < 0.001)). Eye movement analysis revealed prolonged reading duration, longer fixation duration, and an increased number of saccades in individuals with AMD per paragraph. The number of saccades per paragraph was significantly correlated with all measured reading indices. These findings provide insights into reading adaptations in AMD. Simultaneously, the proposed approach in analyzing eye movements puts forward eye trackers as a prospective diagnostic tool in ophthalmology. Full article

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20 pages, 44464 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Guidance Overrides Dynamic Saliency in VR: An Eye-Tracking Study on Gestalt Grouping Mechanisms and Visual Attention Patterns

by Qiaoling Zou, Wanyu Zheng, Xinyan Jiang and Dongning Li

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(5), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18050037 - 25 Aug 2025

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Abstract

(1) Background: Virtual Reality (VR) films challenge traditional visual cognition by offering novel perceptual experiences. This study investigates the applicability of Gestalt grouping principles in dynamic VR scenes, the influence of VR environments on grouping efficiency, and the relationship between viewer experience and [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Virtual Reality (VR) films challenge traditional visual cognition by offering novel perceptual experiences. This study investigates the applicability of Gestalt grouping principles in dynamic VR scenes, the influence of VR environments on grouping efficiency, and the relationship between viewer experience and grouping effects. (2) Methods: Eye-tracking experiments were conducted with 42 participants using the HTC Vive Pro Eye and Tobii Pro Lab. Participants watched a non-narrative VR film with fixed camera positions to eliminate narrative and auditory confounds. Eye-tracking metrics were analyzed using SPSS version 29.0.1, and data were visualized through heat maps and gaze trajectory plots. (3) Results: Viewers tended to focus on spatial nodes and continuous structures. Initial fixations were anchored near the body but shifted rapidly thereafter. Heat maps revealed a consistent concentration of fixations on the dock area. (4) Conclusions: VR reshapes visual organization, where proximity, continuity, and closure outweigh traditional saliency. Dynamic elements draw attention only when linked to user goals. Designers should prioritize spatial logic, using functional nodes as cognitive anchors and continuous paths as embodied guides. Future work should test these mechanisms in narrative VR and explore neural correlates via fNIRS or EEG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 18, Issue 5 (October 2025) – 12 articles

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