Next Article in Journal
Experimental Study on the Performance of an SI Engine Fueled by Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil–Gasoline Blends
Previous Article in Journal
Acid-Assisted Organosolv Pre-Treatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cynara cardunculus L. for Glucose Production
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Energies
Volume 13
Issue 16
10.3390/en13164194
energies-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Thermal Management of Stationary Battery Systems: A Literature Review

by
Martin Henke
and
Getu Hailu
*
College of Engineering, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2020, 13(16), 4194; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13164194
Submission received: 24 June 2020 / Revised: 3 August 2020 / Accepted: 10 August 2020 / Published: 13 August 2020
(This article belongs to the Section J: Thermal Management)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Stationary battery systems are becoming increasingly common worldwide. Energy storage is a key technology in facilitating renewable energy market penetration and battery energy storage systems have seen considerable investment for this purpose. Large battery installations such as energy storage systems and uninterruptible power supplies can generate substantial heat in operation, and while this is well understood, the thermal management systems that currently exist have not kept pace with stationary battery installation development. Stationary batteries operating at elevated temperatures experience a range of deleterious effects and, in some cases, serious safety concerns can arise. Optimal thermal management prioritizes safety and balances costs between the cooling system and battery degradation due to thermal effects. Electric vehicle battery thermal management has undergone significant development in the past decade while stationary battery thermal management has remained mostly stagnant, relying on the use of active and passive air cooling. Despite being the default method for thermal management, there is an absence of justifying research or comparative reviews. This literature review seeks to define the role of stationary battery systems in modern power applications, the effects that heat generation and temperature have on the performance of these systems, thermal management methods, and future areas of study.

1. Introduction to Stationary Batteries

In recent years, several fires have occurred at stationary battery installations throughout the United States and Korea. While the culprit was deemed to be mismanagement of the facilities, initially, the reputation of the enclosed Li-ion batteries drew attention [1,2]. Thermal management of large stationary battery installations is an emerging field, and due to lack of confidence in battery management systems, stationary battery systems are often implemented with 20–50% excess capacity to be cautious in operation [3]. While the safety factor is a necessary part of design, excessive overdesign can incur unneeded costs in implementation. Considering that the expensive initial cost of Li-ion batteries is often seen as the primary drawback of the technology, it is important that systems be sized correctly. Combined, unoptimized thermal management systems and excessively large installations hinder development of battery energy storage systems and underscore thermal management as a worthy topic of review.
As the name implies, a stationary battery is simply a battery used in energy storage placed in a static location. Upon further examination, these batteries can typically be divided by their function as either a standby battery (e.g., batteries in an uninterruptible power supply) or a cycling battery (e.g., batteries comprising an energy storage system) [4]. While there are significant differences between the operational characteristics of these systems, the underlying principles and science remain the same. An element of interest in efficient and safe operation of stationary batteries is thermal management. While battery heat generation and the deleterious effects of elevated temperature are well understood, most of the research has focused on applications towards electric vehicles. To better understand and optimize stationary battery systems, investigation into the role of thermal management is necessary.
By nature, many sources of renewable energy are variable in their power generation. To overcome this issue, it is accepted that most forms of renewable energy require an energy storage system (ESS) in order to establish a reliable and cost-effective electrical system [5,6,7,8,9,10]. For this purpose, there are a wide variety of technologies available. Pumped hydropower, hydrogen energy storage, flywheels, compressed air energy storage, thermal storage, supercapacitors, and electrochemical systems have all seen some degree of investigation and implementation for the purpose of addressing the issue of renewable energy production intermittency. Falling within the electrochemical division, battery energy storage systems (BESSs) have seen significant investment and development due to favorable characteristics, such as rapid discharge, modularity, and flexible scaling [3,11,12]. While BESS systems cannot match the massive quantities of energy storage capacity achievable by technologies such as pumped hydropower, batteries do not have geographic limitations, and modern technologies boast higher round trip energy efficiency than many other storage methods. In addition to storage, the short response time of BESSs can yield other benefits related to grid stability and cost [13]. While batteries are the primary method of energy storage for small-scale and private renewable energy systems [14], BESSs currently account for approximately only 3% of the total national energy storage capacity in the United States; however, in recent years, successful implementation of large-scale utility systems has increased [12,15,16].
In modern electrical and data systems, stability and constant uptime are critical aspects of system performance. Another application of stationary batteries can be to ensure system stability using an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Power interruptions are costly events, with the majority of the costs incurred within the commercial and industrial sectors in the form of lost revenue, materials, and interrupted labor [17]. For example, telecommunication is especially vulnerable to short power interruptions, as power outage for less than a second can cause long periods of interrupted service as data centers restart [18]. These periods of downtime can be costly and result in contract penalties for telecommunication service providers [17,19]. In addition to being costly, these events are also periods in which telecommunications are most desirable for emergency services and, thus, pose a public safety risk. In the interest of prioritizing system uptime for public safety and avoiding costly downtime, it is the industry standard that all data centers are equipped with a UPS. While the battery installation powering a single server may be small, the technology can be scaled up to hundreds of megawatts in capacity to support industrial processes while backup power is brought online [15,20,21].

2. Battery Types

Despite there being many types of batteries, all cells operate on the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy. The primary types of cells used in stationary systems are lead–acid and lithium-ion (Li-ion). While there are alternative technologies, including but not limited to nickel–cadmium, sodium–sulfur, or flow batteries, their discussion and analysis will be omitted in favor of Li-ion and lead–acid batteries, which are most prominently used within BESSs and UPSs, respectively, and have many operational characteristics in common [3,7,12,22]. Sodium–sulfur batteries operate at temperature ranges from 300 to 350 °C, and flow batteries utilize separate electrolytes stored in reservoirs which are then pumped through the cell during charge/discharge [22]. Accounting for the unique characteristics of these battery technologies and the unique management methods is not within the scope of this review.
There are a range of performance characteristics to note when assessing the viability of a battery technology for a stationary system. Energy density is the quantity of energy stored per kilogram of battery mass; similarly, power density is the maximum discharge power capable for the battery per kilogram of mass (in some cases, volume is used instead).
As a general rule, a battery is considered to have reached the end of its functional life when it can only achieve 80% of its original rated capacity [23]. To assess expected battery longevity, there is no clear time frame that can be given as life expectancy as this characteristic is dependent on cycling frequency, discharge/recharge characteristics, thermal conditions, and other factors. One method to assess battery life is through the cycle-life characteristic, which is the number of full discharges and recharges a battery can endure before degrading to the aforementioned 80% reduced capacity [24,25]. It is worth noting that cycle life accounts for full discharges, which are especially stressful for battery technologies such as lead–acid. In applications where partial discharges are more common (such as power smoothing or UPS applications), cycle life may not be an accurate reflection of the number of cycles a battery can endure [23]. In a process known as calendar aging, battery capacity is lost naturally over time even when the cell is not in use; this process is greatly accelerated if the battery experiences high temperatures [26]. The effects of calendar and cyclic aging depend on both the cell technology and the application characteristics the battery experiences.
A safety characteristic relevant to thermal management is a phenomenon known as thermal runway. In this failure mode, the chemical reaction rate within the cell increases uncontrollably, and the temperature of the battery increases in kind. This failure mode can result in fire or an explosion and, deservingly, has been the focus of substantial research [27,28,29].

2.1. Lead–Acid

As a well-established technology, lead–acid batteries currently make up the majority of standby battery installations and have been used in stationary applications for many decades [30,31,32]. Lead–acid batteries are often inexpensive in comparison to alternative battery technologies and their operation and uses are well understood [33]. There are several drawbacks to the technology, including low round trip energy efficiency, poor cycle life, and low power and energy density [34,35,36,37].
The primary types of lead–acid batteries used in stationary systems are the sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VLRA) and the flooded/vented lead–acid battery. Hydrogen evolution is a constant byproduct of all lead–acid batteries and the management of this byproduct is the primary difference between the sealed and vented lead–acid batteries. The less expensive of the two types, vented batteries release this hydrogen into the surrounding environment and require routine maintenance to replenish electrolyte within the cell [38]. For vented batteries, a ventilation system is required so that a fire hazard does not arise due to high hydrogen gas concentration in the environment [39]. While more expensive, VRLA batteries do not require electrolyte to be refilled or a ventilation system for the purpose of hydrogen removal as the generated hydrogen is allowed to recombine with oxygen within the cell and is not expelled into the environment [3,40]. VLRA batteries may be further improved by increasing carbon concentrations within the cathode of the battery. These carbon-enhanced batteries have come to be known as advanced lead–acid batteries, and the chief performance improvement derived from this design is a drastically improved cycle life [12,41].
Regarding thermal performance, the lead–acid battery failure mode in response to elevated temperatures is typically degradation in the performance of the cell [12]. Nonetheless, lead–acid batteries can experience thermal runaway when nearing the end of service life or when subjected to an excessively large float current [29].
For UPS applications, lead–acid batteries are the most common choice as they require little maintenance, have low costs in implementation, and are trusted for safe and reliable operation. The low cycle life characteristic of lead–acid batteries is not as consequential as discharge/recharge cycles are infrequent and, thus, battery degradation due to cycling is not a primary concern [4,42,43]. For ESSs, lead–acid batteries have been disadvantaged due to poor cycle life. However, with the revelation of advanced lead–acid batteries, the technology is a competitive option for BESS implementation with significant market presence, as seen in Figure 1; this is primarily due to low investment cost and its role as a mature and well understood technology [44]. Lastly, it is worth noting that lead–acid batteries are the most readily and efficiently recycled battery technology, which plays a role in the overall sustainability of the energy systems utilizing a BESS [41].

2.2. Lithium-Ion

Li-ion batteries, developed in the 1970s, have seen significant development in the past decade with further implementation expected in the coming years. Li-ion batteries offer high round trip energy efficiencies, are durable to frequent cycling, and have high power and energy density [33,45,46]. While the technology is promising, it is currently limited by elevated investment costs and concerns about catastrophic failure modes in thermal runaway [47,48,49]. Despite these obstacles, Li-ion batteries have surged to become the dominant technology used in transportation and have been instrumental in unlocking the potential of electric vehicles [47].
While lead–acid remains the most prevalent technology in standby power systems, Li-ion batteries are expected to overtake lead–acid technologies in the future as prices decrease and stabilize. Economic analysis has shown that Li-ion technology could be preferable due to decreasing investment costs and increased cycle life; the technology is currently in the early stages of commercialization in application to UPSs, with self-contained UPSs being manufactured for use in data centers [50,51,52,53].
Thermal runway in stationary lithium-ion batteries is a subject of high concern as large Li-ion batteries have high energy density and the surface area (area of convective heat dissipation) of larger cells does not grow in proportion to the increase in power density. In the case of thermal runaway, Li-ion batteries are reputed for catastrophic failure modes, which may include combustion and explosion [27]. Together, the tendency and consequences of thermal runaway in stationary Li-ion batteries have established the requirement for robust thermal management for thermal runaway prevention and the need for backup safety measures in the event of catastrophic failure [52].
In application to energy storage, Li-ion BESS systems have surged in recent years to become the dominant battery technology used in large BESS applications, as seen in Figure 1 [15,54,55]. The expected characteristics of both lead–acid and Li-ion battery technologies in application to a utility scale BESS are presented in Table 1. Note that while Li-ion surpasses lead–acid in all performance characteristics, the initial cost can be up to two- to three-times higher than lead–acid batteries in some cases [56,57,58]. This high initial cost remains as one of the primary obstacles to the selection/implementation of Li-ion batteries in stationary systems [33]. Nevertheless, in UPS applications dominated by VRLA batteries, Li-ion batteries are fast gaining market share, and as power demands of UPS systems increase, it is expected that Li-ion batteries will become more common [53,59,60].

3. Battery Heat Generation and Effects

Regardless of the type of battery, heat generation is a common side effect of both charge and discharge cycles in batteries. Uncontrolled heat generation can cause safety concerns and operational failure; yet, even below maximum operating temperature, excessive heat can drastically decrease the service life expectancy of a battery or result in system malfunction [62,63,64]. Due to adverse effects arising from battery operation at high temperature, a thermal management system for batteries is desired to extend the operational lives of batteries, minimize system maintenance, prevent system failure, and prioritize safety.
The electrochemical reaction as the basis of battery operation is governed by the Arrhenius equation shown in Equation (1). In this equation, k represents the rate of the electrochemical reaction; λ and Λ are constants corresponding to the ratio of the Boltzmann constant to activation energy and the pre -exponential factor respectively; and T represents the temperature in Kelvin.
k = Λ ∗ e x p ( − λ / T )
Examining the relationship between these variables, it is apparent that as temperature increases, the rate of the electrochemical reaction increases in response [65]. Effectively, this means that at higher temperatures, the battery will have increased power output, as can be seen in Figure 2. However, accompanying this increase in output are several adverse effects, including battery degradation and accelerated aging. These effects are visually represented in Figure 3, for which the optimal temperature range for a Li-ion ion battery can be seen.
As energy is transferred through a battery, a normal side effect is the generation of heat. While at low levels of discharge this heat may be dissipated sufficiently by natural convection, in periods of high power, it becomes necessary to dissipate heat through forced convection to prevent battery degradation. In the event of rapid discharge, batteries generate significant amounts of heat due to the internal resistance of the cell [66]. Known as joule heating, this thermal generation is proportional to the square of the current output of the cell, and as power demands increase, the heat generation will grow rapidly. In addition to discharge heat, float point charge of standby batteries can also contribute to internal heat generation. When fully charged, standby batteries are maintained at a low voltage, known as float voltage, to compensate for self-discharge over time. While necessary, float voltage has a downside that nearly all the float charge current is converted to heat [18].
To derive an equation for the overall heat balance of a battery with convective heat dissipation, the first step is to account for joule heating due to internal resistance of the battery during discharge. This can be calculated using Equation (2), in which R represents the internal resistance of the cell and I is the current discharge.
Q r e s = I 2 R
In discharge, there is also heat generation due to the reversible heating component of entropy change, which can be approximated as seen below in Equation (3). Q r e v represents the reversible heating and is the product of current, battery temperature, and the change in entropy.
Q r e v = I T b d V d T
Neglecting conduction to external surfaces and radiation, the primary mode of heat dissipation for batteries is through convection, represented in Equation (4), where the convective heat generation is a product of the convective heat transfer coefficient h , the surface area of the battery, and the temperature difference between the battery surface and surrounding fluid.
Q c o n v = − h A ( T b − T a )
Summing the resistive heating, reversible heat generation, and the convective heat dissipation derived in Equations (2)–(4), the overall heat balance equation for batteries experiencing convective cooling can be derived as shown Equation (5) [68], in which m, C p , and Δ T represent the mass, specific heat, and temperature change, respectively.
m C p ∆ T = Q r e s + Q r e v + Q c o v
Equation (5) represents a reduced thermal balance equation from the total thermal model as seen in Figure 4. The model has been reduced by assuming other terms of heat generation and dissipation to be negligible in comparison to the three included in Equation (5).
Examining battery life efficiency, a primary contributor to cell performance degradation is operation at high temperatures [35]. At temperatures above 50 °C, batteries experience a range of deleterious effects: self-discharge, voltage drop, reduction in energy capacity, and malfunction. In assessing battery aging, a primary factor is the average operational temperature of the battery [70]. Generally, lead–acid batteries see a 50% reduction in operation life for each 10 °C increase in average operating temperature above the recommended operating temp [18,51]. For Li-ion batteries, this 50% reduction in life occurs for a 15 °C increase above the rated operating temperature [71,72]. Thus, thermal management is essential to maintaining batteries as they generate heat or experience elevated temperatures due to environmental effects.
While lead–acid batteries remain the industry standard for standby batteries, they must be kept within a temperature range of 20–25 °C to prevent steep operational life reductions and prevent thermal runaway. In hot climates, keeping stationary batteries within operational temperatures of 20–25 °C can be especially burdensome as outside air must be cooled before being distributed to batteries. In response, there has been interest in the use of battery technologies better suited to increased operational temperatures. Nickel–cadmium and lithium-based batteries also show decreased operational life at temperatures near 35 °C; however, this effect is much less pronounced in comparison to lead–acid batteries [71]. The cost analysis depends on battery technology, outdoor environmental temperature, electricity cost, and a range of other factors. Research is ongoing, yet preliminary analysis shows that under suitable conditions (primarily hot climates), alternative battery technologies operating under increased temperatures are a viable option for reducing power consumption and extending battery life [53,73,74].
In the event that battery heat generation exceeds the rate of dissipation, the increase in temperature leads to a further increase in current and temperature, thus resulting in a positive feedback loop in which there is uncontrolled current and temperature increase. This phenomenon is known as thermal runaway and could result in failure, melting, or combustion of the battery [40,75]. While this phenomenon could be seen in any battery, large cells such as those used in stationary battery systems are especially susceptible to thermal runaway because the surface area of the battery does not increase at a comparable rate to the capacity of the battery in the design of large cells [68]. Furthermore, Li-ion cells contain flammable materials and are notable for susceptibility to thermal runaway, thus making the phenomenon of special importance to the thermal management of Li-ion systems.
An additional factor to account for in the thermal management of stationary battery systems is prevention of temperature differences between batteries. According to IEEE standards, stationary batteries connected in series should not exceed more than 3 °C in temperature differential. Temperature differences between batteries results in reduced battery life spans and increased risk of failure. For an individual battery, it is also important to avoid spot cooling as a temperature gradient over a single cell could lead to the battery becoming electrically imbalanced and malfunctioning [40,75,76].

4. Discussion of Thermal Management

While the necessity of thermal management for stationary batteries is clear, there is currently a clear lack of research on methods for stationary battery thermal management (BTM). According to the IEEE/ASHRAE guide for thermal management of stationary batteries, the objectives of the thermal management systems are to optimize battery performance within budgetary constraints and to provide maximum safety [40,54,75,77]. The research and development of new cooling methods is ongoing, with passive and free cooling, forced air, liquid cooling, phase change materials, and other methods being investigated [71,78,79,80]. However, the vast majority of efforts in developing novel battery thermal management are directed for application in electric vehicle battery packs [81,82,83]. Despite the wide array of options, passive air cooling systems remain the standard for all battery cooling in data centers, and the only option addressed in IEEE/ASHRAE standards recommend a bulk cooling approach tailored towards the thermal management of room/enclosure rather than the individual batteries [40,75].

4.1. Air BTM Systems

Air cooling systems have several benefits that make them the preferred method of battery thermal management. As an established technology, ventilation systems are understood, inexpensive to install and maintain, and reliable. Air cooling also is notable for its uniform heat dissipation, preventing temperature differentials between batteries or spot cooling single locations [84]. An additional benefit of ventilation is that hazards from battery hydrogen gas evolution are avoided as air is mixed or expelled into the environment [39]. Given the benefits and low costs, air cooling has been the preferred method of BTM for stationary batteries [85]. Several basic configurations for air cooling systems are shown in Figure 5. Research has shown free and advanced passive cooling systems to be highly efficient by reducing the energy that must be provided by a refrigeration cycle or fan [78,79,86]. However, this practice is dependent on favorable outdoor environmental conditions and requires a controls system. Comparing cooling methods, generally, air cooling is preferable to liquid cooling for stationary batteries. While liquid cooling systems offer better cooling performance, they are often more expensive, complex, and susceptible to malfunction [84,87,88].
Currently, the general approach taken to battery thermal management is bulk room ventilation as shown in schematic (b) of Figure 5. Direct air cooling is discouraged in systems without proper design as it can result in temperature imbalances between batteries or spot cooling [89]. In 2001, a survey of utility and telecoms lead–acid battery installations reported that only half of the installations use some type thermal control method and only 30% monitor installation temperature. The use of stationary battery installations in southern climates was also limited, and thermal management concerns are speculated as a driving factor behind this trend [90]. Batteries are often stored in an enclosure and, while convenient for being centralized and safely contained, this demands especially robust thermal management to limit high temperatures [91,92].
Adaptive thermal management of stationary batteries, while common in application to portable batteries, shows promise in extending battery life while simultaneously decreasing energy by only providing cooling when required [93,94,95]. Systems of this type are reliant on accurate battery state measurements with frequent sampling rates in order to provide cooling in response to heat generation. In practice, the only battery states that are available to continuously measure for a sealed cell are voltage, current, and battery surface temperature [11,24,84,96]. This presents a problem in that the first two parameters do not directly correlate to heat production and predictive models may shift as batteries age. While surface temperature may seem to be the obvious characteristic to measure, the core of a battery can have a significantly higher temperature or spot cooling may occur in specific locations on the cell [96]. Nonetheless, when implemented correctly, adaptive cooling provides a means to improve battery life and decrease energy usage for large thermal management systems. Despite these advantages, little information was found during this review pertaining to the prevalence of implementation of adaptive cooling to stationary batteries.

4.2. Alternative Stationary BTM Systems

Despite being a common method of BTM for electric vehicles, liquid battery cooling systems have seen little development in application to stationary systems. Liquid systems have been demonstrated to be highly effective in heat dissipation by utilizing pumped coolant (as shown in Figure 6) to effectively increase the convective heat transfer coefficient and thus total convective heat dissipation. In electric vehicles where rapid discharge and high heat generation is a common operational characteristic, liquid convection BTM is the most popular method of thermal management and has been successfully implemented in many commercially available electric vehicles to provide effective cooling [81,82,85]. Despite the high performance of liquid BTM, there are drawbacks in the form of increased system complexity, maintenance, cost, and the potential for leaks [47,97,98].
An emerging competitor, phase change material (PCM) BTM systems use the heat absorbed in the phase change process of a substance to maintain batteries a constant temperature [85,99]. One of the most attractive characteristics of PCM systems is the ability to work passively so that input energy is not required in operation [100]. Drawbacks of PCM BTM include added weight and volume for the material. PCM may also be limited in cases of extreme heat generation as low thermal diffusivity of the phase change material may limit the response time of heat transfer. In the case of continual cycling and heat generation, absorbed heat must ultimately be removed from the PCM, thus potentially requiring a supplementary cooling system [101]. There are also concerns involving the thermomechanical behaviors of many common PCMs, and research regarding material selection and system design must be done before commercialization [35,47]. Again, most research has been done with the intended application to mobile battery systems and further research needs to be done to assess the viability of PCM BTM strategies to high capacity stationary batteries.

4.3. EV BTM Systems

Initially recognized as a major barrier to electric vehicle (EV) viability and a safety hazard, BTM for Li-ion batteries has been the subject of extensive research and development. With high discharge rates, heat generation, and limited space, EV BTM solutions have successfully employed novel methods and technologies in commercialized systems [62,102]. For example, direct air cooling as a means of heat dissipation is often avoided for stationary batteries, and yet this method has been applied to EV battery packs with great success. Liquid cooling systems have also been employed effectively in several commercially available EVs. It is worth noting that the operational characteristics of EV batteries differ from stationary batteries in that there are strict limitations of available space and very high heat generation rates which demand robust thermal management. However, this does not rule out the potential transfer of EV BTM research to stationary applications and could potentially serve a basis of improvement for the sector. In fact, the juxtaposition of advancements in EV BTM with the stagnation of stationary BTM provides evidence that there is significant room for improvement within the stationary battery sector.

5. Conclusions

In modern stationary battery systems, the generation of heat resulting in deleterious effects and potential dangers due to mismanagement are understood phenomena. While air cooling is the standard method of stationary BTM, comprehensive research into the optimization and efficacy of this method was found to be absent from scientific literature. In particular, research contrasting active and passive air cooling efficiency and comparative lifetime cost analysis are missing from academic literature despite both methods currently being in use. Future research into active air cooling and the development of technical standards could potentially yield benefits in the form of more effective cooling systems without greatly increasing complexity or equipment costs.
In addition to reviewing the currently applied thermal management methods, examining novel thermal management technologies, such as liquid cooling or phase change materials, is worthwhile to assess their viability for stationary applications. For this purpose, the considerable progress made in EV BTM may serve as a basis for the development of stationary BTM systems. Liquid cooling has been shown to be highly effective in the high-power applications of electric vehicles, however, the development of stationary scale liquid cooling systems and assessment of economic viability has yet to be performed.
There has been a significant increase in the number and scale of stationary battery installations in the past decade. As stationary battery installations pivot towards high power density Li-ion batteries, the need for more robust cooling systems that keep pace with the increased heat generation to avoid battery degradation and prevent catastrophic failure becomes apparent. To this end, a comparative assessment of currently employed methods of stationary BTM is required, and the potential adaptation of EV BTM technologies should be investigated.

Author Contributions

G.H.: Supervisor, paper writing; M.H.: MSME student. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was partly supported by the ConocoPhillips Arctic Science and Engineering Endowment Award.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Colthorpe, A. Korea’s ESS Fires: Batteries not to Blame but Industry Takes Hit Anyway. Available online: https://www.energy-storage.news/news/koreas-ess-fires-batteries-not-to-blame-but-industry-takes-hit-anyway (accessed on 10 June 2020).
  2. Horwath, J. Energy Storage Companies Continue to Wrestle with Fire Safety. Available online: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/trending/VfyQuAoG0QbIPrvo13HprA2 (accessed on 10 June 2020).
  3. Hu, X.; Zou, C.; Zhang, C.; Li, Y. Technological Developments in Batteries: A Survey of Principal Roles, Types, and Management Needs. IEEE Power Energy Mag. 2017, 15, 20–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kreith, F. Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems. In Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Series, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: Cleveland, OH, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  5. Hammond, R.L.; Everingham, S.; Srinivasan, D. Batteries for stationary standby and for stationary cycling applications part 1: Standby vs. cycling-definitions and concepts. In Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37491), Toronto, ON, Canada, 13–17 July 2003; Volume 1, pp. 141–145. [Google Scholar]
  6. Ould Amrouche, S.; Rekioua, D.; Rekioua, T.; Bacha, S. Overview of energy storage in renewable energy systems. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2016, 41, 20914–20927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Divya, K.C.; Østergaard, J. Battery energy storage technology for power systems—An overview. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2009, 79, 511–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Barton, J.P.; Infield, D.G. Energy storage and its use with intermittent renewable energy. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 2004, 19, 441–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Nor, N.M.; Ali, A.; Ibrahim, T.; Romlie, M.F. Battery Storage for the Utility-Scale Distributed Photovoltaic Generations. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 1137–1154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Yang, Z.; Liu, W.; Baskaran, S.; Imhoff, C.; Holladay, J. Enabling Renewable Energy-and the Future Grid-With Advanced Electricity Storage. JOM 2010, 62, 14–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Lawder, M.T.; Suthar, B.; Northrop, P.W.C.; De, S.; Hoff, C.M.; Leitermann, O.; Crow, M.L.; Santhanagopalan, S.; Subramanian, V.R. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) and Battery Management System (BMS) for Grid-Scale Applications. Proc. IEEE 2014, 102, 1014–1030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. McKeon, B.B.; Furukawa, J.; Fenstermacher, S. Advanced Lead–Acid Batteries and the Development of Grid-Scale Energy Storage Systems. Proc. IEEE 2014, 102, 951–963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Dunn, B.; Kamath, H.; Tarascon, J.-M. Electrical Energy Storage for the Grid: A Battery of Choices. Science 2011, 334, 928–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Speidel, S.; Bräunl, T. Leaving the grid—The effect of combining home energy storage with renewable energy generation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 60, 1213–1224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Telaretti, E.; Dusonchet, L. Stationary battery technologies in the U.S.: Development Trends and prospects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 75, 380–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Nair, N.-K.C.; Garimella, N. Battery energy storage systems: Assessment for small-scale renewable energy integration. Energy Build. 2010, 42, 2124–2130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. LaCommare, K.H.; Eto, J.H. Cost of power interruptions to electricity consumers in the United States (US). Energy 2006, 31, 1845–1855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Neacșu, D.O. Telecom Power Systems; CRC Press: Cleveland, OH, USA, 2017; ISBN 978-1-315-10414-0. [Google Scholar]
  19. Ferraro, M.; Brunaccini, G.; Sergi, F.; Aloisio, D.; Randazzo, N.; Antonucci, V. From Uninterruptible Power Supply to resilient smart micro grid: The case of a battery storage at telecommunication station. J. Energy Storage 2020, 28, 101207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Corey, G.P. Batteries for stationary standby and for stationary cycling applications part 6: Alternative electricity storage technologies. In Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37491), Toronto, ON, Canada, 13–17 July 2003; pp. 164–169. [Google Scholar]
  21. Schainker, R.B. Executive overview: Energy storage options for a sustainable energy future. In Proceedings of the IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, 6–10 June 2004; pp. 2309–2314. [Google Scholar]
  22. Soloveichik, G.L. Battery Technologies for Large-Scale Stationary Energy Storage. Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2011, 2, 503–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. McDowall, J.A. Batteries for stationary standby and for stationary cycling applications part 3: Operating issues. In Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37491), Toronto, ON, Canada, 13–17 July 2003; pp. 152–154. [Google Scholar]
  24. Xiong, R.; Li, L.; Tian, J. Towards a smarter battery management system: A critical review on battery state of health monitoring methods. J. Power Sources 2018, 405, 18–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Berecibar, M.; Gandiaga, I.; Villarreal, I.; Omar, N.; Van Mierlo, J.; Van den Bossche, P. Critical review of state of health estimation methods of Li-ion batteries for real applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 56, 572–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Barré, A.; Deguilhem, B.; Grolleau, S.; Gérard, M.; Suard, F.; Riu, D. A review on lithium-ion battery ageing mechanisms and estimations for automotive applications. J. Power Sources 2013, 241, 680–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Feng, X.; Ren, D.; He, X.; Ouyang, M. Mitigating Thermal Runaway of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Joule 2020, 4, 743–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Wang, Q.; Ping, P.; Zhao, X.; Chu, G.; Sun, J.; Chen, C. Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery. J. Power Sources 2012, 208, 210–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Hu, J.; Guo, Y.; Zhou, X. Thermal runaway of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries. J. Appl. Electrochem. 2006, 36, 1083–1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Lizotte, R. Data Center VRLA Battery End-of-Life Recycling Procedures; Schneider Electric-Data Center Science Center: Rueil-Malmaison, France, 2011; p. 8. [Google Scholar]
  31. Luo, X.; Wang, J.; Dooner, M.; Clarke, J. Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation. Appl. Energy 2015, 137, 511–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Chen, H.; Cong, T.N.; Yang, W.; Tan, C.; Li, Y.; Ding, Y. Progress in electrical energy storage system: A critical review. Prog. Nat. Sci. 2009, 19, 291–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Perrin, M.; Saint-Drenan, Y.M.; Mattera, F.; Malbranche, P. Lead–acid batteries in stationary applications: Competitors and new markets for large penetration of renewable energies. J. Power Sources 2005, 144, 402–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Akinyele, D.; Belikov, J.; Levron, Y. Battery Storage Technologies for Electrical Applications: Impact in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems. Energies 2017, 10, 1760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Rao, Z.; Wang, S. A review of power battery thermal energy management. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15, 4554–4571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Poullikkas, A. A comparative overview of large-scale battery systems for electricity storage. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 27, 778–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Muhando, B.E.; Wies, R.W.; Johnson, T.H.; Holdmann, G. Grid-scale rampable dispatchable storage: Cascaded use of advanced battery technology to increase energy security in Alaska. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, CA, USA, 22–26 July 2012; pp. 1–8. [Google Scholar]
  38. IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications; IEEE Std 450-2010 Revis. IEEE Std 450-2002; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2011. [CrossRef]
  39. Brzezińska, D. Ventilation System Influence on Hydrogen Explosion Hazards in Industrial Lead-Acid Battery Rooms. Energy 2018, 11, 2086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation Design and Installation of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications; IEEE Std 1187-2013 Revis. IEEE Std 1187–2002; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 1–46. [CrossRef]
  41. May, G.J.; Davidson, A.; Monahov, B. Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review. J. Energy Storage 2018, 15, 145–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Raza, S.S.; Janajreh, I.; Ghenai, C. Sustainability index approach as a selection criteria for energy storage system of an intermittent renewable energy source. Appl. Energy 2014, 136, 909–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Faisal, M.; Hannan, M.A.; Ker, P.J.; Hussain, A.; Mansor, M.B.; Blaabjerg, F. Review of Energy Storage System Technologies in Microgrid Applications: Issues and Challenges. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 35143–35164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ribeiro, P.F.; Johnson, B.K.; Crow, M.L.; Arsoy, A.; Liu, Y. Energy storage systems for advanced power applications. Proc. IEEE 2001, 89, 1744–1756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Akinyele, D.O.; Rayudu, R.K. Review of energy storage technologies for sustainable power networks. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2014, 8, 74–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Diouf, B.; Pode, R. Potential of lithium-ion batteries in renewable energy. Renew. Energy 2015, 76, 375–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Liu, H.; Wei, Z.; He, W.; Zhao, J. Thermal issues about Li-ion batteries and recent progress in battery thermal management systems: A review. Energy Convers. Manag. 2017, 150, 304–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Nadeem, F.; Hussain, S.M.S.; Tiwari, P.K.; Goswami, A.K.; Ustun, T.S. Comparative Review of Energy Storage Systems, Their Roles, and Impacts on Future Power Systems. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 4555–4585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Vetter, J.; Novák, P.; Wagner, M.R.; Veit, C.; Möller, K.-C.; Besenhard, J.O.; Winter, M.; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, M.; Vogler, C.; Hammouche, A. Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 2005, 147, 269–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Karthigeyan, V.; Aswin, M.; Priyanka, L.; Sailesh, K.N.D.; Palanisamy, K. A comparative study of lithium ion (LFP) to lead acid (VRLA) battery for use in telecom power system. In Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy Information and Commuincation (ICCPEIC), Melmaruvathur, India, 22–23 March 2017; pp. 742–748. [Google Scholar]
  51. Stan, A.-I.; Swierczynski, M.; Stroe, D.-I.; Teodorescu, R.; Andreasen, S.J.; Moth, K. A comparative study of lithium ion to lead acid batteries for use in UPS applications. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 36th International Telecommunications Energy Conference (INTELEC), Vancouver, BC, Canada, 28 September 2014; pp. 1–8. [Google Scholar]
  52. Tsujikawa, T.; Yabuta, K.; Arakawa, M.; Hayashi, K. Safety of large-capacity lithium-ion battery and evaluation of battery system for telecommunications. J. Power Sources 2013, 244, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Niccolai, J. Microsoft Slashes Backup Power Costs with Lithium-Ion Batteries-ProQuest. Computerworld. Available online: https://www.computerworld.com/article/2895064/microsoft-slashes-backup-power-costs-with-lithiumion-batteries.html (accessed on 10 June 2020).
  54. Hart, D.; Sarkissian, A. Deployment of Grid-Scale Batteries in the United States; US Department of Engergy: Fairfax, VA, USA, 2016.
  55. Tsiropoulos, I.; Tarvydas, D.; Lebedeva, N. Li-ion Batteries for Mobility and Stationary Storage Applications Scenarios for Costs and Market Growth; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  56. Fan, X.; Liu, B.; Liu, J.; Ding, J.; Han, X.; Deng, Y.; Lv, X.; Xie, Y.; Chen, B.; Hu, W.; et al. Battery Technologies for Grid-Level Large-Scale Electrical Energy Storage. Trans. Tianjin Univ. 2020, 26, 92–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Mongird, K.; Viswanathan, V.V.; Balducci, P.J.; Alam, M.J.E.; Fotedar, V.; Koritarov, V.S.; Hadjerioua, B. Energy Storage Technology and Cost Characterization Report; Pacific Northwest National Lab. (PNNL): Richland, WA, USA, 2019.
  58. Fu, R.; Remo, T.W.; Margolis, R.M. 2018 U.S. Utility-Scale Photovoltaics-Plus-Energy Storage System Costs Benchmark; National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL): Golden, CO, USA, 2018.
  59. Jung, S.-M.; Ricci, B.; Chung, G. Lithium Ion Battery System in data centers. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 15th International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering (EEEIC), Rome, Italy, 10–13 June 2015; pp. 968–973. [Google Scholar]
  60. Lavoie, Y.; Danet, F.; Lombard, B. Lithium-ion batteries for industrial applications. In Proceedings of the 2017 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical Conference (PCIC), Calgary, AB, Canada, 18–20 September 2017; pp. 283–290. [Google Scholar]
  61. Li, M.; Lu, J.; Chen, Z.; Amine, K. 30 Years of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1800561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  62. Ruetschi, P. Aging mechanisms and service life of lead–acid batteries. J. Power Sources 2004, 127, 33–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Smith, K.; Saxon, A.; Keyser, M.; Lundstrom, B.; Cao, Z.; Roc, A. Life prediction model for grid-connected Li-ion battery energy storage system. In Proceedings of the 2017 American Control Conference (ACC), Seattle, WA, USA, 24–26 May 2017; pp. 4062–4068. [Google Scholar]
  64. Leng, F.; Tan, C.M.; Pecht, M. Effect of Temperature on the Aging rate of Li Ion Battery Operating above Room Temperature. Sci. Rep. Nat. Publ. Group Lond. 2015, 5, 12967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  65. Yang, Y.; Hu, X.; Qing, D.; Chen, F. Arrhenius Equation-Based Cell-Health Assessment: Application to Thermal Energy Management Design of a HEV NiMH Battery Pack. Energy 2013, 6, 2709–2725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. Shabani, B.; Biju, M. Theoretical Modelling Methods for Thermal Management of Batteries. Energy. Basel 2015, 8, 10153–10177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Zia, M.F.; Elbouchikhi, E.; Benbouzid, M. Optimal operational planning of scalable DC microgrid with demand response, islanding, and battery degradation cost considerations. Appl. Energy 2019, 237, 695–707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Jouhara, H.; Khordehgah, N.; Serey, N.; Almahmoud, S.; Lester, S.P.; Machen, D.; Wrobel, L. Applications and thermal management of rechargeable batteries for industrial applications. Energy 2019, 170, 849–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Abada, S.; Marlair, G.; Lecocq, A.; Petit, M.; Sauvant-Moynot, V.; Huet, F. Safety focused modeling of lithium-ion batteries: A review. J. Power Sources 2016, 306, 178–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Liu, L.; Sun, H.; Li, C.; Li, T.; Xin, J.; Zheng, N. Managing Battery Aging for High Energy Availability in Green Datacenters. IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst. 2017, 28, 3521–3536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Santhanagopalan, S.; Smith, K.; Neubauer, J. Design and Analysis of Large Lithium-Ion Battery Systems; Artech House: Norwood, MA, USA, 2014; ISBN 978-1-60807-714-4. [Google Scholar]
  72. Hesse, H.C.; Schimpe, M.; Kucevic, D.; Jossen, A. Lithium-Ion Battery Storage for the Grid-A Review of Stationary Battery Storage System Design Tailored for Applications in Modern Power Grids. Energy 2017, 10, 2107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  73. McDowall, J.; Gates, W.G. Temperature up, costs down: The influence of battery technology and thermal management in base stations. In Proceedings of the INTELEC 05-Twenty-Seventh International Telecommunications Conference, Berlin, Germany, 18–22 September 2005; pp. 297–303. [Google Scholar]
  74. Albright, G.; Edie, J.; Al-Hallaj, S. A Comparison of Lead Acid to Lithium-Ion in Stationary Storage Applications; All Cell Technologies LLC, 2012. Available online: https://www.batterypoweronline.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Lead-acid-white-paper.pdf (accessed on 29 March 2012).
  75. IEEE/ASHRAE Guide for the Ventilation and Thermal Management of Batteries for Stationary Applications; IEEE Std 1635-2012ASHRAE Guidel. 21-2012; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2012. [CrossRef]
  76. Yang, N.; Zhang, X.; Shang, B.; Li, G. Unbalanced discharging and aging due to temperature differences among the cells in a lithium-ion battery pack with parallel combination. J. Power Sources 2016, 306, 733–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. ASHRAE’s Energy Standard for Data Centers Turns Three-Proquest. Available online: https://search-proquest-com.proxy.consortiumlibrary.org/docview/2265676064?pq-origsite=summon (accessed on 10 June 2020).
  78. Zhang, H.; Shao, S.; Xu, H.; Zou, H.; Tian, C. Free cooling of data centers: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 35, 171–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Daraghmeh, H.M.; Wang, C.-C. A review of current status of free cooling in datacenters. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 114, 1224–1239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Mohammadian, S.K.; He, Y.-L.; Zhang, Y. Internal cooling of a lithium-ion battery using electrolyte as coolant through microchannels embedded inside the electrodes. J. Power Sources 2015, 293, 458–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Wu, W.; Wang, S.; Wu, W.; Chen, K.; Hong, S.; Lai, Y. A critical review of battery thermal performance and liquid based battery thermal management. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 182, 262–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Xia, G.; Cao, L.; Bi, G. A review on battery thermal management in electric vehicle application. J. Power Sources 2017, 367, 90–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Bandhauer, T.M.; Garimella, S.; Fuller, T.F. A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2011, 158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Khan, M.R.; Swierczynski, M.J.; Kær, S.K. Towards an Ultimate Battery Thermal Management System: A Review. Batteries 2017, 3, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  85. Al-Zareer, M.; Dincer, I.; Rosen, M.A. A review of novel thermal management systems for batteries. Int. J. Energy Res. 2018, 42, 3182–3205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Schmidt, R.R.; Shaukatullah, H. Computer and telecommunications equipment room cooling: A review of literature. IEEE Trans. Compon. Packag. Technol. 2003, 26, 89–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Lu, H.; Zhang, Z.; Yang, L. A review on airflow distribution and management in data center. Energy Build. 2018, 179, 264–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Divakaran, A.M.; Hamilton, D.; Manjunatha, K.N.; Minakshi, M. Design, Development and Thermal Analysis of Reusable Li-Ion Battery Module for Future Mobile and Stationary Applications. Energies 2020, 13, 1477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  89. Data Center Power Equipment Thermal Guidelines and Best Practices; ASHREA TC99; ASHRAE: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2016.
  90. Butler, P.; Dunleavey, J.; Farber-DeAnda, M.; Moseley, P. Performance of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries in real-world stationary applications—Utility installations. J. Power Sources 2001, 96, 94–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Garche, J.; Jossen, A. Battery management systems (BMS) for increasing battery life time. In Proceedings of the TELESCON 2000. 3rd International Telecommunications Energy Special Conference (IEEE Cat. No.00EX424), Dersden, Germany, 10 May 2000; pp. 81–88. [Google Scholar]
  92. Cho, J.; Jeong, S.; Kim, Y. Commercial and research battery technologies for electrical energy storage applications. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2015, 48, 84–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Xie, Q.; Yue, S.; Pedram, M.; Shin, D.; Chang, N. Adaptive thermal management for portable system batteries by forced convection cooling. In Proceedings of the 2013 Design, Automation Test in Europe Conference Exhibition (DATE), Grenoble, France, 18–22 March 2013; pp. 1225–1228. [Google Scholar]
  94. He, F.; Ma, L. Thermal management of batteries employing active temperature control and reciprocating cooling flow. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2015, 83, 164–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Chang, G.; Cui, X.; Li, Y.; Ji, Y. Effects of reciprocating liquid flow battery thermal management system on thermal characteristics and uniformity of large lithium-ion battery pack. Int. J. Energy Res. 2020, 44, 6383–6395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Arasaratnam, I.; Tjong, J.; Ahmed, R.; El-Sayed, M.; Habibi, S. Adaptive temperature monitoring for battery thermal management. In Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Detroit, MI, USA, 28 October 2013; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  97. Ali, H.A.A.; Abdeljawad, Z.N. Thermal Management Technologies of Lithium-Ion Batteries Applied for Stationary Energy Storage Systems: Investigation on the Thermal Behavior of Lithium-Ion Batteries; Mälardalens University: Västerås, Sweden, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  98. Chen, D.; Jiang, J.; Kim, G.-H.; Yang, C.; Pesaran, A. Comparison of different cooling methods for lithium ion battery cells. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2016, 94, 846–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  99. Al-Zareer, M.; Dincer, I.; Rosen, M.A. A thermal performance management system for lithium-ion battery packs. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2020, 165, 114378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Wilke, S.; Schweitzer, B.; Khateeb, S.; Al-Hallaj, S. Preventing thermal runaway propagation in lithium ion battery packs using a phase change composite material: An experimental study. J. Power Sources 2017, 340, 51–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Madani, S.S.; Swierczynski, M.J.; Kær, S.K. A review of thermal management and safety for lithium ion batteries. In Proceedings of the 2017 Twelfth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte Carlo, Monaco, 11–13 April 2017; pp. 1–20. [Google Scholar]
  102. Kim, J.; Oh, J.; Lee, H. Review on battery thermal management system for electric vehicles. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2019, 149, 192–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energies 13 04194 g001 550
Figure 1. Division of US battery energy storage system (BESS) projects by technology with respect to total MW capacity. Electrochemical refers to unspecified technologies [15].
Figure 1. Division of US battery energy storage system (BESS) projects by technology with respect to total MW capacity. Electrochemical refers to unspecified technologies [15].
Energies 13 04194 g001
Energies 13 04194 g002 550
Figure 2. Li-ion battery capacity discharge curves dependent on temperature at a steady 3C (Coulombs) discharge rate [66].
Figure 2. Li-ion battery capacity discharge curves dependent on temperature at a steady 3C (Coulombs) discharge rate [66].
Energies 13 04194 g002
Energies 13 04194 g003 550
Figure 3. Li-ion battery cycle life over a range of average operational temperatures [67].
Figure 3. Li-ion battery cycle life over a range of average operational temperatures [67].
Energies 13 04194 g003
Energies 13 04194 g004 550
Figure 4. Comprehensive thermal model for a lithium-ion battery [69].
Figure 4. Comprehensive thermal model for a lithium-ion battery [69].
Energies 13 04194 g004
Energies 13 04194 g005 550
Figure 5. Basic battery pack air cooling schematics [35].
Figure 5. Basic battery pack air cooling schematics [35].
Energies 13 04194 g005
Energies 13 04194 g006 550
Figure 6. Basic schematic of a liquid battery cooling system [98].
Figure 6. Basic schematic of a liquid battery cooling system [98].
Energies 13 04194 g006
Table
Table 1. Typical battery characteristics in application to a large energy storage system (ESS) [56,57,58,61].
Table 1. Typical battery characteristics in application to a large energy storage system (ESS) [56,57,58,61].
Battery TypeEnergy Density
(Wh/kg)		Efficiency
-		Usage Life
(Years)		Cycles Life
(Cycles)		Cost
($/kWh)
Lead–Acid30–5075–85%2–3500–1000120–300
Lithium-Ion100–25095% to ~100%5–6>1000200–325

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Henke, M.; Hailu, G. Thermal Management of Stationary Battery Systems: A Literature Review. Energies 2020, 13, 4194. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13164194

AMA Style

Henke M, Hailu G. Thermal Management of Stationary Battery Systems: A Literature Review. Energies. 2020; 13(16):4194. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13164194

Chicago/Turabian Style

Henke, Martin, and Getu Hailu. 2020. "Thermal Management of Stationary Battery Systems: A Literature Review" Energies 13, no. 16: 4194. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13164194

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop