A Review of CO2 Storage in View of Safety and Cost-Effectiveness
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanisms and Strategies of CO2 Storage
2.1. Mechanisms of CO2 Storage
2.2. Strategies of CO2 Storage
2.2.1. CO2 Storage in Saline Aquifers
2.2.2. CO2 Storage in Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs
2.2.3. CO2 Storage in Coal Beds
2.2.4. CO2 Storage in Deep Ocean
2.2.5. CO2 Storage in Deep-Sea Sediments
3. Security Assessment of Underground CO2 Storage
3.1. Numerical Methods for the Security Assessment of CO2 Storage
3.2. Monitoring Technologies in the Assessment of the CCS Risks
3.3. Generating CO2-in-Water Foams
3.4. Accelerating CO2 Dissolution Process
3.5. Accelerating Mineral Carbonation Process
3.5.1. CO2 Storage in Basalt Rock Formation
3.5.2. CO2 Storage in Peridotite Formation
3.5.3. Direct Mineralization of Flue Gas by Coal Fly Ash
3.5.4. Direct Aqueous Mineral Carbonation
3.5.5. pH Swing Mineralization
4. Strategies for Improving the Cost-Effectiveness of CO2 Storage
4.1. Enhanced Industrial Production with CO2 Storage
4.1.1. CO2-EOR
4.1.2. CO2-EGR
4.1.3. CO2-EWR
4.1.4. CO2-ESGR
4.1.5. CO2-ECBM
4.1.6. CO2-EGS
4.1.7. CO2-IUL
4.1.8. CH4-CO2 Replacement from Natural Gas Hydrates
4.2. Co-Injection of CO2 with Impurities
4.3. Prospects of CCS/CCUS Technologies
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Research Fields | Ref. | Review Scope |
---|---|---|
CO2 capture and utilization | [13] | Review of the application of CO2 for enhanced oil and gas recovery |
[14] | Review of CO2 capture and reuse technologies, highlighting the strategies of CO2 capture in variety of scenarios, and the state of the art for CO2 utilization | |
[15] | Review of CO2 capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) in Chinese Academy of Sciences, highlighting the strategies for CCUS in China | |
[16] | Review of the property impacts of CCS, highlighting the effect of uncertainties in thermal–physical properties on the design of components and processes in CCS | |
[17] | Review of CCS highlighting the CO2 capture technologies, the pilot plants, and the economic and legal aspects of CCS | |
[18] | Review of CO2 enhanced coal bed methane recovery, highlighting the CO2 storage trials in the San Juan Basin in USA, and the estimation of CO2 storage capacity in coal seams | |
[19] | Review of CCUS technologies highlighting the engineering projects and their developments in China | |
[20] | Review of CCS highlighting the findings obtained in CCS operational projects including the technologies of CO2 capture, separation, transport, and storage | |
Options for CO2 storage and CCS projects | [21] | Review of CCS highlighting the options for CO2 storage, the evaluation criteria for CO2 storage sites, and the major CO2 storage projects |
[22] | Review of biomass with CCS (Bio-CCS), highlighting the economics and global status of Bio-CCS, and the role of Bio-CCS in the food–water–energy–climate nexus | |
[23] | Review of CO2 storage in saline aquifers, highlighting the geological and operation parameters, and the monitoring technologies for existing saline aquifers storage operations | |
[24] | Review of the CCS in a coal-fired plant in Malaysia, highlighting the choices of coal plants and the capture technologies | |
[25] | Review of CO2 storage in saline formations, highlighting the modeling of solubility trapping | |
[26] | Review of mineral carbonation (MC) technologies for CO2 sequestration, highlighting the mechanisms of MC technologies and their contribution in decreasing the cost of CCS | |
[27] | Review of CCS projects and future opportunities, highlighting the technical details and business plan for CCS projects | |
[28] | Review of CO2 storage projects in China, highlighting the CO2 source, and CO2 storage strategies in China | |
[29] | Review of CO2 mineralization product forms, highlighting the mineralization process for CO2 storage | |
[30] | Review of CCS by using coal fly ash, highlighting the feasibility and prospects of CCS using coal fly ash | |
CO2-brine-rock systems | [31] | Review of the relative permeability and residual trapping in CO2 storage systems, highlighting the estimating and measuring methods |
[32] | Review of the geochemical aspects of CO2 storage in saline aquifers, highlighting the advantages of CO2 storage in saline aquifers, and the CO2–brine–rock interactions in the aquifers | |
[33] | Review of geomechanical modeling of CO2 storage, highlighting the numerical methods and their application in the modeling of ground deformation, faults, and fracture propagation | |
[34] | Review of CO2 sequestration highlighting the trapping mechanisms and the flow of CO2 brine in porous media system | |
Well integrity and risk assessment | [35] | Review of the cement degradation in CO2-rich conditions of CCS projects, highlighting the degradation of Portland cement |
[36] | Review of the risk assessment of CO2 storage, highlighting the regulations and strategies of risk assessment for CO2 storage | |
[37] | Review of the isotopic composition of CO2 for leakage monitoring in CCS project, highlighting the stable isotopes as a tracer for injected CO2 | |
[38] | Review of the integrity of existing wells for CCS, highlighting the mechanical well failure and chemical issue due to cement carbonation | |
[39] | Review of well integrity of CCS, highlighting the corrosion of metallic and cement, and the remedial measures | |
[40] | Review of caprock sealing mechanisms for CO2 storage, highlighting the problems associated with CO2 leakage, the leakage paths, and the factors that affect leakage | |
[41] | Review of CO2 storage highlighting the capacity estimation of storage sites, the monitoring technologies, and the simulation tools for CCS | |
[42] | Review of CO2 storage and caprock integrity, highlighting the major CCS project in operation and CO2 migration in the reservoirs | |
Storage efficiency and environmental considerations | [43] | Review of CO2 storage efficiency in saline aquifers, highlighting the factors that affect CO2 plume migration and the methods to estimate the storage capacity |
[44] | Review of environmental considerations for CO2 storage in a sub-seabed, highlighting the potential ecological impacts |
Num. | Project | Injection Rate (t/d) | Permeability (mD) | Depth (m) | Thickness of Reservoir (m) | Thickness of Caprock (m) | Reservoir Temperature (°C) | Reservoir Pressure (MPa) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Snøhvit | 2000 | 450 | 2550 | 60 | 30 | 95 | 28.5 | [23,61] |
2 | Sleipner | 2700 | 3000 | 1000 | 250 | 75 | 37 | 10.3 | [23,58,66] |
3 | In Salah | 3500 | 13 | 1800 | 20 | 900 | 90 | 17.9 | [23,63] |
4 | Gorgon | 10,410 | 25 | 2300 | 280 | 250 | 100 | 22 | [23,64] |
5 | Quest | 2960 | 100 | 2000 | 40 | 70 | 55 | 18.9 | [65,66,67,68] |
Option | Pros | Cons |
---|---|---|
Saline aquifers | Huge amount of storage capacity, wide distribution, commercial technology readiness level | No economic benefit |
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs | Existing installed equipment, guaranteed caprock integrity, characterized geological conditions, small pressure perturbations and induced stress changes, additional oil and gas recovery | Demonstration technology readiness level |
Coal beds | Low transportation cost due to its potential location near the coal-fired power plants, additional coal bed methane recovery | Pilot plant technology readiness level |
Deep ocean | Large storage capacity | Formulation technology readiness level, no economic benefit, may affect the marine environment |
Deep-sea sediments | Enormous storage capacity, free from the potential harm to the ocean ecosystems | Formulation technology readiness level, no economic benefit, far more expensive than onshore methods |
Monitoring Technology | Advantages | Ref. |
---|---|---|
3D seismic | Provides a tridimensional image of geological structures and the plume migration of CO2. | [62] |
4D seismic | Significant benefits for overburden imaging and time-lapse responses with improved acquisition plan. | [62] |
Microseismic | It is very useful for monitoring geomechanical response to injection. | [151] |
Vertical seismic profiling | Valuable information on the geological structure details. | [152] |
Gravimetry | Beneficial for the evaluation of formation fluids density and CO2 plume. | [153] |
Cross-hole electromagnetic | Advantageous for the detection and monitoring of the location of CO2. | [155] |
Pressure and temperature monitoring | Direct information for the evaluation of the stability of the reservoir. | [156] |
Geochemical sampling | Natural variations in water chemistry are crucial for establishing a useful baseline for groundwater hydrology. | [157] |
Soil and gas sampling | More data on natural CO2 variations in different environments and associated seasonal fluctuations is needed. | [62] |
Tracers | Valuable and cost-effective method for monitoring the origin of CO2 observations at wells and in the storage complex. | [62] |
Atmospheric monitoring | Useful data to identity the anomalies above the natural baseline. | [160] |
Microbiology | Valuable data to identify biogeochemical process that affect the diffusion of CO2 in the reservoirs. | [161] |
Core analysis | Good petrophysical data and rock mechanical properties are essential. | [62] |
Satellite monitoring | Valuable and cost-effective monitoring data for onshore CO2 injection operation. | [163] |
Distributed temperature sensing technology | It can provide high-resolution information on the migration of CO2 in the reservoir. | [164] |
Monitoring Technology | Sleipner | Frio | Nagaoka | Ketzin | In-Salah | Otway | Weyburn | MRCSP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3D seismic | × | × | × | × | × | |||
4D seismic | × | × | ||||||
Microseismic | × | × | × | × | × | |||
Vertical seismic profiling | × | × | ||||||
Gravimetry | × | × | × | × | ||||
Cross-hole electromagnetic | × | × | × | |||||
Pressure and temperature logs | × | × | × | × | × | |||
Geochemical sampling | × | × | × | × | × | × | ||
Soil and gas sampling | × | × | × | |||||
Tracers | × | × | × | |||||
Atmospheric monitoring | × | |||||||
Microbiology | × | |||||||
Core analysis | × | × | ||||||
Satellite monitoring | × | × | ||||||
Distributed temperature sensing technology | × |
Rock Type | Saturated Fluids | T (°C) | P (MPa) | Key Observations | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Carbonate core | CH4 | 20–60 | 3.55–20.79 | Whether CO2 is in the gas, liquid, or supercritical phase, it could enhance the recovery of CH4. | [83] |
Carbonate core | Saturated with methane with or without water | 20–80 | 3.55–20.79 | The coefficient of CO2 increases with temperature and decreases with pressure. | [231] |
Berea sandstone core | Dry core, initial saturation of 10% water, and initial saturation of 10% brine (20 wt %), respectively | 40 | 8.96 | The salinity of connate water will decrease the dispersion of CO2 in CH4. | [232] |
Sandstone and carbonate core | CH4 | 60–80 | 10–12 | The residual water narrows the pore and consequently increases the dispersion of supercritical CO2 and CH4. | [233] |
Sandstone core | CH4 and simulate natural gas (90% CH4 + 10% CO2) respectively | 40–55 | 10–14 | The dispersion coefficient of CO2 in the simulate natural gas is larger than that of CH4. | [234] |
Sandstone core | Formation water and N2 | 50 | 21 | The gravity segregation effect is notable in the porous and permeable core, while the heterogeneity effect becomes dominant in the low permeability of the core. | [235] |
Bandera sandstone core | CH4 | 50 | 8.96 | The gravity has significant effects on the flow behavior of SCO2 at lower flow rates. | [236] |
Strategy | Under Evaluation | EOR | CCS | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Saline Formation | Depleted Gas Fields | ||||
Quality of project | 24 | 3 | 21 | 3 | 51 |
Capture capacity (Mtpa) | 42.11–43.41 | 8.1–8.6 | 40.35–85.1 | 7.5–8.5 | 98.06–145.61 |
Average capture capacity (Mtpa) | 1.75–1.81 | 2.7–2.87 | 1.92–4.05 | 2.5–2.83 | 1.92–2.86 |
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Cao, C.; Liu, H.; Hou, Z.; Mehmood, F.; Liao, J.; Feng, W. A Review of CO2 Storage in View of Safety and Cost-Effectiveness. Energies 2020, 13, 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030600
Cao C, Liu H, Hou Z, Mehmood F, Liao J, Feng W. A Review of CO2 Storage in View of Safety and Cost-Effectiveness. Energies. 2020; 13(3):600. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030600
Chicago/Turabian StyleCao, Cheng, Hejuan Liu, Zhengmeng Hou, Faisal Mehmood, Jianxing Liao, and Wentao Feng. 2020. "A Review of CO2 Storage in View of Safety and Cost-Effectiveness" Energies 13, no. 3: 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030600