Modelling of Solar Irradiance Incident on Building Envelopes in Polish Climatic Conditions: The Impact on Energy Performance Indicators of Residential Buildings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Polish Typical Meteorological Years
4. Modelling of Solar Irradiance on Sloped Surfaces
4.1. Introduction
teq = 5.2 + 9.0·cos[(nday − 43)·0.0357·180/π] if 20 ≤ nday < 136,
teq = 1.4 − 5.0·cos[(nday − 135)·0.0449·180/π] if 136 ≤ nday < 241,
teq = −6.3 − 10.0·cos[(nday − 306)·0.036·180/π] if 241 ≤ nday < 336,
teq = 0.45·(nday − 359) if nday ≥ 336,
cos(δ)·cos(φw)·cos(β)·cos(ω) + cos(δ)·sin(φw)·sin(β)·cos(γ)·cos(ω) +
cos(δ)·sin(β)·sin(γ)·sin(ω)].
4.2. Global Irradiance on a Sloped Surface
4.3. Transposition Models
4.3.1. TMY
4.3.2. Liu-Jordan
4.3.3. Badescu
4.3.4. Koronakis
4.3.5. Circumsolar
4.3.6. Bugler
4.3.7. Klucher
4.3.8. Hay
4.3.9. Willmott
4.3.10. Ma and Iqbal
4.3.11. Skartveit and Olseth
4.3.12. Reindl
4.3.13. Gueymard
4.3.14. Muneer
4.3.15. Perez
4.3.16. EN ISO 52010
5. Materials and Methods
5.1. Test Buildings
5.2. Calculation of Solar Gains
5.3. Energy Performance Indicators
- The value of the annual demand for nonrenewable primary energy EP (kWh/m2) is lower or equal to the maximum value specified in the regulations (Table 6).
- The partitions and technical equipment of a building meet at least the thermal insulation requirements specified in Annex 2 of this Regulation (Table 7).
6. Results and Discussion
6.1. Solar Gains in the Single Family Building
6.2. Solar Gains in the Multifamily Building
6.3. Annual Heating Energy Demand
6.4. Energy Performance Indicators
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Ac | —projected area of an envelope element, m2 |
Asol | —effective collecting area of an envelope element, m2 |
Af | —total conditioned (heated and/or cooled) floor area, m2 |
Af,c | —total cooled floor area, m2 |
Ac | —projected area of an envelope element, m2 |
Asol | —effective collecting area of an envelope element, m2 |
B | —Earth orbit deviation, ° |
Cm | —internal thermal capacity of the considered building (or zone), J/K |
EA | —annual heating energy demand per unit floor area of a building, kWh/m2 |
EPH+W | —partial maximum value of the EP index for heating, ventilation and domestic hot water, kWh/m2 |
EP | —index of the annual demand for nonrenewable primary energy, kWh/m2 |
EU | —usable energy indicator, kWh/m2 |
FF | —frame and divider area fraction of the glazed element |
Fsky | —view factor between the element and the sky |
Fsh,ob | —shading reduction factor for external obstacles |
Fsh,gl | —shading reduction factor for movable shading provisions |
F1 | —circumsolar brightness coefficient |
F2 | —horizontal brightness coefficient |
Gsol,c | —solar constant, 1370 W/m2 |
H | —solar irradiation, kWh/m2 |
Htr | —heat transfer coefficient by transmission, W/K |
Hve | —heat transfer coefficient by ventilation, W/K |
Ib,h | —direct (beam) solar irradiance on a horizontal surface, W/m2 |
Ib,s | —direct (beam) solar irradiance on a sloped surface, W/m2 |
Id,h | —diffuse solar irradiance on a horizontal surface, W/m2 |
Id,s | —diffuse solar irradiance on a sloped surface, W/m2 |
Iext | —extra-terrestrial irradiance, W/m2 |
Iext,h | —extra-terrestrial irradiance on a horizontal surface, W/m2 |
Ig,h | —global solar irradiance on a horizontal surface, W/m2 |
Ig,s | —global solar irradiance on a sloped surface, W/m2 |
Ir,s | —solar irradiance due to ground reflection on a sloped surface, W/m2 |
Itot | —calculated total solar irradiance, W/m2 |
Rb | —beam (direct) transposition factor |
Qsol | —solar heat gain, J |
Rd | —diffuse transposition factor |
Rr | —reflected transposition factor |
Rse | —external surface heat resistance of an element, m2·K/W |
Tshift | —time shift, h |
TZ | —time zone, h |
U | —thermal transmittance, W/(m2·K) |
Uc | — thermal transmittance of an envelope element of the area Ac, W/(m2·K) |
f | —brightness coefficient (Perez model) |
ggl | —monthly mean effective total solar energy transmittance |
i | —month number |
hr,e | —external radiative heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2·K) |
kH | —anisotropy index (Hay model) |
kR | —modulating factor (Reindl model) |
kT | —clearness index of the atmosphere |
m | —air mass |
nday | —day of the year |
nhour | —actual (clock) hour for the location (counting number of the hour in the day) |
teq | —equation of time, min |
ts | —solar time, h |
ti | —internal air temperature, °C |
Δ | —sky brightness parameter |
ΔEPC | —partial value of the EP index for cooling, kWh/m2 |
ΔEPL | —partial value of the EP index for lighting, kWh/m2 |
Δθsky | — average difference between the external air temperature and the apparent sky temperature, K |
Δτm | —length of the m-th month, s |
Φr | —heat flow due to thermal radiation to the sky, W |
Φsol | —heat flow by solar gains through a building element, W |
αop | —absorption coefficient for solar radiation of the opaque element |
αsol | —solar altitude angle, ° |
β | —slope angle of inclined surface, ° |
γ | —azimuth angle, ° |
δ | —solar declination, ° |
ε | —clearness parameter (Perez model) |
θ | —angle of incidence of beam irradiance, ° |
θz | —zenith angle, ° |
λw | —longitude of a weather station, ° |
ρ | —solar reflectivity of the ground and building’s surroundings |
φw | —latitude of a weather station, ° |
ω | —solar hour angle, ° |
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Field Number | Name (Symbol) | Unit | Format |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Number of the hour (N) | — | I2 |
2 | Month (M) | — | I2 |
3 | Day (D) | — | I2 |
4 | UTC (GMT Greenwich Mean Time) (H) | — | I2 |
5 | Dry bulb temperature (DBT) | °C | I5.1 |
6 | Relative humidity (RH) | % | I2 |
7 | Moisture content (HR) | g/kg | F6.3 |
8 | Wind speed (WS) | m/s | F4.1 |
9 | Wind direction (WD) in 36 sectors: 0—silence, N—36, E—9, S—18, W—27, etc. 99—variable | I2 | |
10 | Global solar irradiance on a horizontal surface (ITH) | W/m2 | F5.1 |
11 | Direct solar irradiance on a horizontal surface (IDH) | W/m2 | F5.1 |
12 | Diffuse solar irradiance on a horizontal surface (ISH) | W/m2 | F5.1 |
13 | Sky temperature (TSKY) | °C | F5.2 |
14 | Total solar radiation intensity on the horizontal surface (direction N inclination 0°) (N_0) | W/m2 | F5.1 |
15–47 | Global solar irradiance on surfaces with N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW orientation and slope angle of 30°, 45°, 60°, 90° (N_30, NE_30, …) | W/m2 | F5.1 |
ε | f11 | f12 | f13 | f21 | f22 | f23 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<1.065 | −0.008 | 0.588 | −0.062 | −0.060 | 0.072 | −0.022 |
<1.23 | 0.130 | 0.683 | −0.151 | −0.019 | 0.066 | −0.029 |
<1.5 | 0.330 | 0.487 | −0.221 | 0.055 | −0.064 | −0.026 |
<1.95 | 0.568 | 0.187 | −0.295 | 0.109 | −0.152 | −0.014 |
<2.8 | 0.873 | −0.392 | −0.362 | 0.226 | −0.462 | −0.001 |
<4.5 | 1.132 | −1.237 | −0.412 | 0.288 | −0.823 | 0.056 |
<6.2 | 1.060 | −1.600 | −0.359 | 0.264 | −1.127 | 0.131 |
≥6.2 | 0.678 | −0.327 | −0.250 | 0.156 | −1.377 | 0.251 |
No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Locations | Koszalin | Poznań | Kielce | Białystok | Zakopane |
Climate zone | I | II | III | IV | V |
Design outside temperature (°C) | −16 | −18 | −20 | −22 | −24 |
Mean annual temperature (°C) | 8.0 | 8.2 | 7.5 | 6.9 | 5.4 |
Altitude (m) | 0 | 92 | 261 | 151 | 857 |
H (kWh/m2) | 827.4 | 960.8 | 981.1 | 897.1 | 1006.7 |
CDD | 63 | 114 | 74 | 63 | 19 |
HDD | 3716 | 3621 | 4002 | 4168 | 4585 |
Latitude | 54°12′ N | 52°25′ N | 50°49′ N | 53°06′ N | 49°18′ N |
Longitude | 16°09′ E | 16°51′ E | 20°42′ E | 23°10′ E | 19°58′ E |
Parameter | Building 1 | Building 2 | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
Length | 10.5 | 29.5 | m |
Width | 7.0 | 11.0 | m |
Height above the ground | 2.7 | 14.7 | m |
Total heated area | 71.4 | 1515.0 | m2 |
Total heated volume | 357.0 | 3787.5 | m3 |
Number of inhabitants | 5 | 120 | — |
Heat transfer coefficient by ventilation (Hve) | 60.81 | 645.19 | W/K |
Internal heat capacity Cm | 23.56 | 393.90 | MJ/K |
Internal gains density per floor area | 6.8 | 5.9 | W/m2 |
Ventilation airflow | 178.5 | 1894.0 | m3/h |
External wall area—N | 38.9 | 433.6 | m2 |
External wall area—S | 38.9 | 433.6 | m2 |
External wall area—E | 32.9 | 161.7 | m2 |
External wall area—W | 32.9 | 161.7 | m2 |
Area of the roof | 86.0 | 324.5 | m2 |
Thermal transmittance of external walls | 0.227 | 0.218 | W/m2K |
Thermal transmittance of the roof | 0.165 | 0.155 | W/m2K |
Thermal transmittance of the floor on the ground | 0.221 | 0.330 | W/m2K |
Thermal transmittance of windows and glazed doors | 1.1 | 1.1 | W/m2K |
Thermal transmittance of external doors | 1.5 | 1.5 | W/m2K |
Heat source (heating) | Condensing gas boiler | Heating network | — |
Heat source (hot water) | Condensing gas boiler + solar collectors | Heating network | — |
Average annual total efficiency of the heating system, ηH,tot | 0.84 | 0.88 | — |
Average annual total efficiency of the domestic hot water heating system, ηw,tot | 0.61 | 0.85 | — |
Circulating pump power, heating | 50 | 1500 | W |
Circulating pump power, hot water | 30 | 0 | W |
Parameter | Building 1 | Building 2 | Unit | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variant 1 | Variant 2 | Variant 1 | Variant 2 | ||
Heat transfer coefficient by transmission (Htr) | 111.47 | 107.80 | 756.0 | 704.8 | W/K |
WWR—N | 6.2 | 4.9 | 23.9 | 20.8 | % |
WWR—S | 17.4 | 13.9 | 20.1 | 16.1 | % |
WWR—E | 24.6 | 21.9 | 25.0 | 17.1 | % |
WWR—W | 14.1 | 11.3 | 25.0 | 17.1 | % |
WWR—roof | 5.6 | 4.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | % |
Solar energy transmittance of windows and glazed doors (ggl) | 0.75 | 0.50 | 0.75 | 0.50 | — |
Partition | U2017 (W/m2K) | U2021 (W/m2K) |
---|---|---|
External wall | 0.23 | 0.20 |
Roof | 0.18 | 0.15 |
Floor on the ground | 0.30 | 0.30 |
External door | 1.50 | 1.30 |
External window (except roof) | 1.10 | 0.90 |
External window (roof) | 1.3 | 1.1 |
Building | Part | EP2017 (kWh/m2) | EP2021 (kWh/m2) |
---|---|---|---|
Single family | EPH+W | 95 | 70 |
∆EPC | 10·Af,c/Af | 5·Af,c/Af | |
∆EPL | 0 | 0 | |
Multifamily | EPH+W | 85 | 65 |
∆EPC | 10·Af,c/Af | 5·Af,c/Af | |
∆EPL | 0 | 0 |
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Michalak, P. Modelling of Solar Irradiance Incident on Building Envelopes in Polish Climatic Conditions: The Impact on Energy Performance Indicators of Residential Buildings. Energies 2021, 14, 4371. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144371
Michalak P. Modelling of Solar Irradiance Incident on Building Envelopes in Polish Climatic Conditions: The Impact on Energy Performance Indicators of Residential Buildings. Energies. 2021; 14(14):4371. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144371
Chicago/Turabian StyleMichalak, Piotr. 2021. "Modelling of Solar Irradiance Incident on Building Envelopes in Polish Climatic Conditions: The Impact on Energy Performance Indicators of Residential Buildings" Energies 14, no. 14: 4371. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144371