The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Decision to Use Solar Energy and Install Photovoltaic Panels in Households in the Years 2019–2021 within the Area of a Selected Polish Municipality

Abstract

The aim of this article is to show the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on electricity consumption and, consequently, on decisions regarding the installation of photovoltaic panels using the example of a selected local authority in Poland—the Szemud Municipality. The analysis was conducted in 2022 and covered the years 2019–2021. An attempt was made to explore the factors that may have triggered an increase in the use of solar energy in households and identify the determinants of installing photovoltaic panels in the period under analysis. Previous analyses of the PV market (and the impact of the pandemic on it) have so far focused on the market as a whole, either in macro or global terms, while studies on smaller municipalities have been limited to examining changes in electricity consumption levels during the COVID-19 pandemic and during lockdown. Therefore, a research gap was identified in that there are no studies analyzing the reasons for the shift from conventional to PV-assisted energy in households, with the COVID-19 pandemic as the background of these changes. The literature research showed that there are currently no studies attempting to establish a link between the increased interest in this type of energy by local authorities and the COVID-19 pandemic. The research confirmed the hypothesis of increased interest in household PV during the pandemic. The main conclusions of the study boil down to the need for further support as well as promotion of the use of solar energy. In addition, the results derived from the empirical research indicate the need to take action at a policy level to counter adverse trends regarding undesirable social behavior.

1. Introduction

Production and energy use are responsible for over 75% of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union [1]. In the “Steering Electricity Markets Towards Rapid Decarbonization” report by the International Energy Agency (IEA), it is forecasted that, by 2050, as the sectors currently based on fossil fuels become increasingly electrified, the demand for electrical energy will increase from 23,230 TWh in 2020 to 60,000 TWh [2]. In light of the declared global targets for climate change, decarbonization of the electrical sector is of key importance to accomplishing net-zero emissions by 2050. This determines the demand for energy from more environment-friendly sources, in which renewable energy sources (RESs) play a pivotal role.

As a member state of the European Union, Poland is taking steps to increase the share of RESs. In 2021, the Polish Council of Ministers approved a document entitled “Poland’s Energy Policy until 2040” (PEP 2040), which assumes an increase in the share of renewable energy sources (RESs) in the national energy mix to at least 32% by 2030. This target is expected to be met through the development of photovoltaics and offshore wind farms [3]. Meanwhile, a series of programs called “My Electricity” has been implemented in Poland since 2019 and has just entered its fourth edition. Its goal is to encourage residents to install photovoltaic systems in exchange for subsidies [4]. Such programs are also being implemented at the local government level. This article focuses on the aspect of solar energy utilization in the form of prosumers’ investments in the construction of photovoltaic installations in the area of a selected municipality in Poland. In recent years, a large increase in the number of photovoltaic panels installed by private investors in households has occurred, which prompted the following research question.

Question 1:

What factors are driving the embrace of prosumer PV installations in the selected municipality in Poland?

Having reviewed statistical data and scientific findings, we saw that a large increase in new PV installations in Poland occurred over the period 2019–2021, which coincides with the COVID-19 pandemic. This led us to raise another research question.

Question 2:

Was it because of the pandemic that prosumers decided to install photovoltaic panels?

The above questions were verified on the basis of a questionnaire addressed to the inhabitants of the Szemud Municipality in northern Poland and were accompanied by an extensive desk study. The topic of pandemic-driven energy use growth and the installation of photovoltaic panels is indeed popular worldwide, as confirmed by the literature research detailed in the following sections of this article.

2. Current Status of PV System Development in Poland

Economic, technological, and population growth have led to an increase in the demand for electrical energy worldwide [5]. Simultaneously, through the challenges associated with climate change and global warming one can observe a transformation of the energy sector into a more environmentally friendly one. We are witnessing a transition from systems based on fossil fuels to clean technologies based on sustainability [6]. The global RSE market is constantly expanding. The literature research suggests that the coronavirus pandemic did not slow this process down [7,8,9,10,11]. However, both households and industrial and service companies in Poland are facing higher energy bills [12,13] in addition to rampant inflation, the war between Ukraine and Russia, the restrictions and sanctions, and finally the fear of another coronavirus wave. This has fueled the concern about energy price hikes [14]. However, the problem of rising energy prices is not new. The higher energy bills are associated with the pro-environmental policy of the European Union (EU), which translates into rising charges for CO₂ emissions. This is shown in Figure 1 and has a significant impact on countries strongly reliant on energy generation based on fossil fuels, such as Poland [15]. In 2020, the amount of energy generated was 146.56 TWh, including 110.12 TWh of power from bituminous coal and lignite, which accounts for over 75% of the total [16,17].

Figure 1 shows an increase from almost 10 EUR/tCO2 in 2015 to almost 90 EUR/tCO2 in 2021. This has directly affected the cost of purchasing electricity by end consumers. According to a Rachuneo.pl study, the annual cost of the consumption and distribution of electricity with a monthly consumption rate of 200 kWh in 2022 will be higher by about PLN 500 compared with 2019 [19]. This systematic and unavoidable increase in energy charges, but also the increase in electricity consumption, which is a natural result of economic and social development, has raised prosumer attitudes in Poland.

There is an increased interest in new solutions to both better manage electricity and reduce its price. These solutions are mainly based on investing in alternative renewable energy sources (RESs). There are, among other things, systems of renewable energy sources for power storage [20,21] and purpose-made subsidies for mounting RES systems [22]. Moreover, technological advancements based on alternative energy sources cost less than the conventional method [23,24,25]. M. Andrychowicz points to a method of optimization of local initiatives in the energy sector, such as energy cooperatives and energy clusters [20]. Lee Ch. Y. and Ahn J propose a method for photovoltaics cost optimization [26]. The subject is highly popular, so the return on investment from these solutions can be much more rapidly and easily achieved than in the past.

Thanks to technological advancements, the greatest ever decrease in photovoltaics (PV) installation costs occurred. According to the IRENA report, between 2010 and 2019 the cost of photovoltaics installations decreased by 82% [27]. Therefore, the main focus is on solar technologies, which are preferable to other technologies that use renewable energy sources, especially in households, according to statistics. As per the latest Polish Energy Market report, in April 2020 the power of photovoltaics installations was 9998.2 MW, more than a twofold increase compared with April 2021, when that value was 4739.6 MW. It is clear that photovoltaics systems are predominant in the Polish RES market, with a 52% share. Let us note that 64,249 new PV systems were installed, and their total power was 564.17 MW, which constitutes 92% of all new RES systems. However, the average power of a new photovoltaic system installed in April 2022 was 8.78 kW [28]. This demonstrates the great interest among individual households, where system of such power is sufficient to satisfy the demand for electrical power [29,30]. Figure 2 shows the increase in the number of PV installations in Poland, in which a sixfold increase in the use of this type of energy over just 4 years can be observed.

From the point of view of the research questions, the years 2019–2021 are particularly noteworthy, as this is when a significant increase in the number of PV installations occurred. What is puzzling, however, is that these are also the years of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis that triggered the closure of many industrial centers, mass layoffs, the need to work and study remotely, and the fear of shortages of basic goods, rising prices, less access to healthcare, and rising inflation that has not been tamed since. Those were uncertain years for most Polish consumers, and yet they chose to invest in costly photovoltaics installations. By browsing the offers of companies selling photovoltaic panels in the area of the selected municipality, we determined that the average cost of such an investment for a family of four was 23,000 PLN [31] or just over 5000 EUR. In 2021, the national minimum net salary was PLN 2061. Thus, the installation of a photovoltaics system for an average family would cost almost a year’s salary for one person employed full-time and earning the minimum national salary. The return on investment is estimated at 10 years on average.

3. Literature Research and Hypothesis Development

Numerous findings regarding prosumer PV installations can be found in the literature. This demonstrates the great interest in this topic. The first research question posed in this article sets out to identify the factors that have led to the increased interest in PV among households. To do this, literature research was conducted. Different studies indicate that attitudes towards prosumer PV technology are an important factor determining the intention to invest in this technology [32,33]. Such attitudes are primarily influenced by affordability. Alam and Rashid [34] argue that consumers are more likely to opt for RESs when these are easy to install and simple to use, and all the more so if there is no need to hire technicians. Further research indicates that the belief in solar energy being a clean and emission-free energy source also positively impacts the willingness to install PVs [35]. The literature also addresses the issue related to the age of prosumers. It has been noted that the willingness of households to invest in PV is correlated with the age of prosumers and their awareness of such sources [36]. Many authors mention environmental, financial, and social considerations in general when analyzing the drivers of public acceptance of solar technologies [37,38,39]. Thus, it is difficult to unequivocally state the one factor that influences the decision to invest in PV solutions the most. However, it can be seen that this decision has many components and certainly depends on the current individual situation of the future prosumer. Nevertheless, an attempt was made in this study to identify these factors, and the results are discussed in the following sections of this article.

The willingness to invest in prosumer infrastructure can be motivated by many different factors, one of which is the volume of electricity consumption. An analysis of the literature was therefore carried out specifically for energy consumption. Due to the second question posed in the Introduction section, the focus was on literature research concerning energy consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic. A hypothesis was also formulated, which was then verified by means of a literature review followed by survey research.

Hypothesis 1:

The COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in household energy consumption.

The influence of pandemics on energy consumption has been the subject of research of several research teams. As early as 2020, Czosnyka M., Wnukowska B., and Karbowa K. investigated the situation in Poland between 1 March 2020 and 15 May 2020. According to their research, power consumption during that period was 6.9% lower than in the same period in 2019, and 8.1% lower in comparison with the same period in 2018 [40]. A similar trend was observed in Italy, where the pandemic led to a 37% decrease in comparison with the same period in the previous year [41]. The same trend was investigated in Kuwait by HM Alhajerii et al., who demonstrated that the pandemic curbed the demand for electrical power in the first half of 2020 [42]. The aforementioned studies concern power usage overall and do not distinguish between particular sectors of the economy. However, further studies identified an increase in demand for electrical power in households across different countries. A research team from India found a 15% increase in electrical power usage in households during a lockdown between April and June 2020 [43]. Another research team, led by Novianto, D., Koerniawan, M.D., Munawir, M., and Sekartaji, D., focused on the case of Indonesia and proved that, during the pandemic, regions home to the greatest urban centers experienced the highest median consumption along with an increase in the standard of living [44]. Similar conclusions were drawn by a team from Kazakhstan, who focused on Kazakh urban dwellers [45]. It can therefore be assumed that the demand for power in households increased while simultaneously decreasing as far as businesses and industries are concerned. Subsequent studies, e.g., that of M. Malec, G. Kinelski, and M. Czarnecka, who performed a demand analysis of business clients for electrical power in Poland, seem to uphold that theory. From their research, it is clear that the demand for power during the first lockdown decreased by as much as 23%, and the demand for power during the second lockdown decreased by 11% [46]. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on electrical power usage in households in Poland was presented by S. Bielecki et al., whose analysis proved that the demand for electrical power during the day increased due to the transition to remote work [47]. A study by P. Mastropietro, P. Rodilla, and C. Batlle concerned the impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on the ability of households to pay electricity bills. They concluded that the poorest households needed financial aid to be able to use electrical power [48]. No such financial support for the poorest households is currently available in Poland. However, there is a program that subsidizes photovoltaics installations for households. Therefore, bearing in mind the strong influence of subsidies on PV installation decisions, we posited a second hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2:

Economic factors influence attitudes toward prosumer photovoltaics technology.

As mentioned in the Introduction section, the fourth edition of the “My Electricity” program has been in operation in Poland since 2019. The first two recruitments for “My Electricity” contributed to the reduction of CO₂ by as much as 1,000,000,000 kg/year [49]. The main goal of the program is to increase the number of prosumers of PV micro-installations with a power of 2–10 kW among households in Poland. The programme’s budget for the three first editions was over 1.8 billion PLN. Moreover, as part of these editions there were 444,000 applications from individuals who wanted to become prosumers [4]. The current edition of the program envisages a subsidy of 20,000 PLN, of which up to 4000 PLN is for autonomous photovoltaic installations, up to 5000 PLN is for photovoltaic installations with an additional product, up to 7500 PLN is for energy storage, up to 5000 PLN is for heat and cold storage, and up to 3000 PLN is for a Home Energy Management System (HEMS) [50,51]. Given that the average cost of installing photovoltaic panels is 23,000 PLN (roughly 5000 EUR) and the government subsidy runs up to 4000 PLN (850 EUR), in real terms we are reducing the cost by more than 17%. The authors of the research also viewed this as an impetus for prosumer investment.

However, apart from government domestic programs for prosumer support, there are also additional programs that have been paid for by local governments in an effort to decrease the carbon footprint within the area of their municipality. We focused in particular on a Polish municipality in order to analyze PV usage in the area. A public opinion survey was also performed, the findings of which are presented within the following sections of this article.

This hypothesis was confirmed not only by the reports and results published after the completion of the three phases of the “My Electricity” (Mój prąd) program, but also based on the survey. Indeed, the financial support—even if not substantial in real terms—served as a huge incentive for prosumers. Furthermore, we found studies in the literature pointing not only to the above considerations, but also to environmental ones. Two research teams performed a similar analysis of the correlations of the “My Electricity” program’s beneficiaries to their location in Poland [52,53]. A research team composed of P. Olczak, A. Żelazna, D. Matuszewska, and M. Olek performed an analysis of the program’s impact on the reduction in CO₂ emissions [22].

Undoubtedly, environmental considerations can today have an invaluable impact on consumer decisions. For this reason, and based on a review of the literature analyzing consumer preferences, we formulated a third hypothesis.

Hypothesis 3:

Environmental factors have a significant impact on attitudes toward prosumer PV technology.

In 2011, researchers in Japan [54] showed that environmental considerations and an increase in public awareness have a positive impact on the diffusion of photovoltaic systems. The increased public awareness is a result of the perceived climate change and visible environmental degradation. In this regard, the number one topic is the emission of greenhouse gases, which contributes to an increase in global temperatures. In order to reduce these emissions, a switch to alternative energy sources and, in particular, renewable energy sources is being promoted [55,56,57]. In the literature, one can find studies confirming the fact that people with a high level of environmental awareness are more likely to switch to PV energy [58,59]. However, some studies indicate quite the opposite. Namely, they show that environmental aspects do not exert an influence on PV installation decisions [60,61]. We are, therefore, dealing with two different theories. It is therefore impossible to verify the hypothesis based on the literature alone. In order to verify the status quo, we decided to include questions related to environmental issues in the survey questionnaire. The verification of the hypotheses is presented later in this article.

4. Methodology

This study was conducted using different research methods (desk research, explorative, critical, and comparative analyses, and a broad review of the scientific and statistical literature). A statistical analysis tool, the r-Pearson’s correlation coefficient, was also used. The primary method used in the research was the diagnostic survey method.

A diagnostic survey consists of collecting the opinions and views of the chosen community. Due to the relatively large size of the general population and the relatively high level of credibility of the obtained answers, in order to collect a representative research sample the method of choice was a survey. In this study, the tool used to record the answers of respondents was an online questionnaire survey accessible through an internet link. The link was posted on thematic forums and in social media groups. The answers to the ordered question sets were given anonymously and voluntarily. In order to obtain the maximum amount of information within the area of the research topic, the questionnaire was composed of open, half-open, and closed questions.

The conducted research concerned the analysis of factors that had an influence on decisions of the residents of a selected municipality in Poland, namely Szemud Municipality, to install photovoltaic panels. This included the identification of factors taken into account at the investment stage, an assessment of the impact of the pandemic on the work mode (on-site vs. remote), an assessment of electrical energy usage levels between 2019 and 2021, and an assessment of the impact of the pandemics on the energy bills paid by households. The research enabled us to draw a number of conclusions that helped to verify the hypotheses and achieve the research objectives.

5. Survey Study in the Area of the Selected Municipality

Szemud Municipality is located in northern Poland, in the central part of Pomerania, in the Wejcherowo district, and it covers an area of 175.76 km² (Figure 3). On 30 April 2022, the municipality had 18,840 residents, of whom 49.2% were women and 50.8% were men. Between 2002 and 2021, the number of residents increased by 65.2%. The mean age of the residents is 34.8 years.

In the survey, there were 189 participants. The responses were obtained within the period between 11 May 2022 and 30 May 2022. Details of the survey sample are included in Figure 4.

The questionnaire was directed to the residents of Szemud Municipality. The questionnaire was more often filled out by men (almost 63%). In terms of the age structure, there were five groups. The group that showed the greatest interest in the survey was the one with the age range of 36–45 years, and their share in the total was 29.5%. Another age range that was represented by the greatest number of people was 26–35 years with a share of 22%. The group with the lowest number of people was represented by young people aged 18–25 (11.5%) and people over 56 years of age (18%). The data confirm that young people who usually do not have their own house are not interested in the topic of photovoltaic panels. A similar situation occurred with elderly people, although their lack of interest may result from poor finances. The majority of respondents live in detached houses (84%), which constitute the most popular form of family house in Szemud Municipality. Multi-family houses are not allowed in the area of the analyzed municipality. Furthermore, analyzing the number of people within a household, the results show that the prevailing model is “two plus two”, i.e., parents with two children (31%). This is followed by three-people households (22%) and two-people households (19%), while the group with the lowest number of people is constituted by households with only one person (11.5%). Additionally, the respondents declared that in 46% of the households there are persons who are enrolled in compulsory education.

Table 1. List of questions used in the questionnaire.

No.	Scope/Content of the Question
1	Share of economically active people who switched to remote work in 2020 due to COVID-19
2	How many computers/laptops/tablets do you have in your household that are used on an ongoing basis?
3	What electrical household appliances do you use in your household?
4	In the last 2 years, have you noticed an increase in electricity consumption in your household?
5	Monthly consumption in individual quarters and the years 2019–2021
6	Are there any photovoltaic panels installed in the household?
7	Year of installation of photovoltaic panels
8	Determinants of the decision to install photovoltaic panels
9	Determinants of the installation of photovoltaic panels in the area of Szemud Municipality between 2019 and 2020 from a hierarchical perspective

shows the questions included in the questionnaire.

Analyzing the responses to the question of switching to a remote work mode due to pandemic restrictions, it is clear that among economically active people in 2020, 29% switched to remote work from home. The remaining persons indicated the lack of a possibility to work remotely due to the specifics of their job and the fact that they would rather perform the work at their workplace.

Regarding the question on the number of computers, laptops, or tablets used on an ongoing basis in a household, the respondents indicated that the answer encompassing all four items (32%) was the most common. However, the least frequent answer was the one that led to the conclusion that the respondents were not in possession of such items at all (4%). Almost 18% of the respondents indicated that they used at least five items of this type on an ongoing basis.

In turn, as far as feedback on the use of home appliance electrical equipment in households is concerned, the respondents confirmed almost unanimously that they owned a TV set, a washing machine, a refrigerator, and a vacuum cleaner. Approximately 70% had a microwave oven, a cooktop, and an electrical kettle, while about 20% of the respondents used a toaster. Only a small percentage of respondents mentioned air conditioning.

Another group of questions concerned the usage of electrical power in the respondents’ households. Almost all of the respondents (approximately 92%) agreed that, during the last three years, they had observed an increase in electrical power usage in their households. As for as the detailed questions on the level of year-to-year electrical power usage in a particular quarter, it can be assumed that, along with the outbreak of the pandemic, the respondents saw their monthly use of electrical power grow systematically. In 2019, the most prevalent range of consumption was 301–400 kWh, while the least prevalent rates of consumption were 200 kWh per month and over 501 kWh per month. However, in 2021, while the less than 200 kWh range remained the least frequent answer, the percentage of people declaring monthly consumption at this level significantly decreased to a small percentage. In turn, the most frequently declared monthly use of power was in the range between 401 and 500 kWh. Notable in this period is the significant percentage of respondents declaring that their power usage was in the range below 501 kWh (15–24% in 2021). The data confirm that, along with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, power usage tended to increase.

Regarding the use of photovoltaic panels, 21% of the respondents replied positively to the question of whether they have such installations on their property. This prevalence of renewable energy sources may be due to the fact that, for a dozen or so years, the area of the municipality became attractive to young people wishing to live close to a large agglomeration, i.e., Tricity, while embracing environmental protection solutions and recognizing the potential financial advantages for themselves. In terms of the year in which such panels were installed, the years 2020 and 2022 account for 67% of the responses. The record year was 2021, when approximately 32% of all panels were installed.

The respondents were also asked about the determinants of decisions on installing photovoltaic panels, which are shown in Figure 5.

To assess possible changes in the share of the aforementioned determinants in the period 2019–2021, the respondents were asked to indicate the factors that had an influence on their decisions within the studied period. On the basis of the collected feedback, it can said that the most significant determinants were “the growing price of electrical power” and “the growing use of electrical power”. However, the percentage of the former remained relatively stable in the following years. In turn, the “growing use of electric power” determinant showed a dynamic increase in 2020 at 29%, which was the highest increase reported for the determinants throughout 2019–2022. In the research, subsidies showed relatively stable results (approximately 20%). Regarding the impact of the environmental aspect on decision-making, it stood at 17% in 2019 but went down to 8% in the years that followed.

The research confirmed a high and increasing level of interest from the selected community in installing photovoltaics panels in their households and also showed that the COVID-19 pandemic boosted interest in renewable energy sources. However, within the given period, there was a change in the share of determinants that make people consider installing photovoltaic panels in their homes.

6. Results and Discussion

In order to verify Hypothesis 1, the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables were also measured. The first variable was the level of household electricity consumption as declared by survey respondents. The second variable was the number of photovoltaic installations in households of the surveyed community. A study of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient for these two variables was conducted for the years 2019–2021.

Table 2. Results on the correlation of electricity consumption data and the number of photovoltaic installations in selected households in the Szemud Municipality in 2019–2021.

Declared Range of Monthly Electricity Consumption	The Value of the Correlation Index “r”
0–200 kWh	−0.51
201–300 kWh	−0.62
301–400 kWh	−0.72
401–500 kWh	0.64
501 and higher	0.54

shows the results of the correlation study.

The calculations indicate that the three ranges with the lowest declared electricity consumption show a moderately strong, albeit negative, correlation with the number of photovoltaic installations in the survey respondents’ homes. On the other hand, a moderately strong positive correlation appeared with the two highest ranges of declared monthly electricity consumption. These results of the correlation study allow for a partial confirmation of Hypothesis 2, which relates to the increase in electricity consumption during the pandemic. The confirmation is partial because the survey respondents showed greater interest in installing photovoltaic panels only when their monthly electricity consumption was at least 401 kWh per month. Below this value, the correlation is negative.

6.1. Practical Implications

Regarding the application of our findings, this study indicates the need to focus on programs supporting RES development on a national, but also on a micro-regional, basis. Although Poland has a national project supporting the installation of photovoltaic panels, projects developed directly by local authorities may prove to be more effective, allowing for better allocation of earmarked funds. An important issue in the allocation of funds is an adequate analysis of the environment. In Poland, industry, the number of homes per square kilometer, and the wealth of the population are highly variable. These elements translate into the financial capacity of society, which in turn is reflected in the decision to invest in PV energy. Authorities at the regional level who are responsible for coordinating these types of projects have greater knowledge of the needs, requirements, opportunities, and constraints that exist in the areas under their administrative responsibility. This study confirms these aspects, while also indicating that managers of environmental projects at the regional level have greater flexibility. Of course, nationwide projects should not be abandoned, but, in view of the results of this study, consideration should be given to extending the implementation of environmental projects coordinated at the regional level.

6.2. Theoretical Implications

A further applied aspect is the need to pay attention to the environmental dimension of the conducted survey. As indicated earlier, the respondents to the survey, during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, significantly shifted away from pro-environmental arguments in favor of determinants of a typically economic nature, identifying the reasons for the investment undertaken in photovoltaic panels. In a sense, this attitude can be justified by the high degree of uncertainty, which has further increased with the development of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, such an argument, when confronted with the growing environmental challenges facing societies, is hardly convincing. It would therefore be appropriate to consider taking action to remind citizens that, irrespective of the economic, political, or social situation, we cannot ignore ecological aspects when making decisions. The ecological challenges are so important that they must be the starting point and therefore be prioritized.

7. Conclusions

Among the challenges concerning sustainability, in both social and economic aspects, the issue of natural environment protection is a significant part of the discussed problem. In recent years, this has been reflected by the installation of photovoltaic panels in households. Through the results of the survey, Hypothesis 1 was confirmed: the COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in household energy consumption. Respondents’ answers clearly indicate that, along with the outbreak of the pandemic, some of the trends prior to 2020 had been markedly altered. Remote work, as well as online education, resulted in people spending more time at home. This in turn led to an increase in electrical power usage within the study period and to higher electricity bills as a consequence. However, the increasing power usage was not the only contributor to the decision to install photovoltaic panels. A significant determinant turned out to be the possibility of obtaining a subsidy from the government and local authorities. Respondents paid attention to the fact that a one-time investment in photovoltaic panels is a more attractive option than a systematic increase in electricity bills. Another interesting issue is the problem of assessing the impact of environmental protection on such decisions. The obtained feedback did not support Hypothesis 3, which relates to a pro-environmental rationale. The respondents, in the face of the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, significantly de-emphasized pro-environmental argumentation in favor of concerns of an essentially financial nature. It can be assumed that, along with the normalization of the pandemic situation, the influence of ecological aspects will grow. However, the escalating war between Russia and Ukraine will have a lasting impact on possible decisions to install renewable energy systems as access to the conventional raw materials needed for electricity generation is under threat. This, in turn, may contribute to an increased interest in PV energy. Thus, the installation of PV panels in households may increase, albeit to a limited extent, the level of energy security of families, bearing in mind the growing economic problems associated with the energy transition. Moreover, Poland must reduce its carbon footprint, and the most effective method for doing this is restricting the use of fossil fuels to produce energy and replacing them with RESs. Apart from wind turbines, which are rarely installed in private households, solar energy is the second most popular choice as it gives a sense of security and has a direct impact upon the financial and energetic situation. This may be the key to meeting international energetic and environmental commitments.

It is important to realize that Poland, but also the European Union as a whole, faces a number of significant energy policy challenges. Dynamic changes in the market for raw materials for energy generation (as well as the scope of these changes and the intensifying rivalry for priority access to strategic raw materials), along with the simultaneous pressure to stimulate economic growth after the COVID-19 pandemic, affect the foundations of the assumptions of the EU energy strategy. On top of all this, let us also note the decrease in energy production in the European Union. This further reinforces the requirement that the security of the energy supply, increased competitiveness, and the sustainable development of the energy sector be listed among the main goals of this policy. Another important element of this policy is the growing diversification of the sources and directions of the supply of raw materials for energy generation within the territory of individual EU countries. This last demand in particular highlights the emerging conflict between the individual interests of member states and the Community and is often the cause of tensions within the European Union. Of course, installing photovoltaic panels will not solve these problems entirely, but it can at least reduce the negative effects resulting from the lack of access to energy at the micro level, which, in light of the uncertain geopolitical situation, may become a reality. Finally, knowledge of the factors that support the installation of individual photovoltaic systems is extremely important from the point of view of decision-making centers at the government level, but also at the local government level, which then have the authority to stimulate energy transition processes within the scope of their powers.