An Overview for Modern Energy-Efficient Solutions for Lunar and Martian Habitats Made Based on Geopolymers Composites and 3D Printing Technology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Materials Possible to Usage for Lunar and Martian Shelters
- Availability of proper raw material: The regolith is rich in aluminosilicate minerals but poor in calcium; its chemical and mineral characteristics match better with geopolymerization technology than traditional OPC-based concrete. Additionally, while geopolymers may require some solution to dissolve and activate the regolith, the water demand is much lower compared to OPC [34], and water must be harvested from the polar ice caps for other human sustainability purposes.
- Geopolymers can be prepared under ambient conditions, which reduces energy consumption during the construction process. Curing at elevated temperatures is relevant to daytime lunar surface temperatures.
- For the geopolymer system where the bulk of the binder is the regolith itself, it allows for the limited usage of terrestrial materials. The use of lunar regolith and alkali metals as components of geopolymer composites can thereby facilitate lunar construction without the need to bring materials in from the Earth at an extreme cost [35,39]. Using in situ resource utilization (ISRU) technology allows one to limit the cost of construction [40].
- The presence of alkali metals on the moon might be used as a source of the alkaline solution for geopolymerization [35]. Geopolymerization based on different solutions is a relatively well-known technology.
- The phosphate-based geopolymers can be developed as a material applicable to Martian inhabitants. Raw materials, such as phosphoric acid and water, are available in the Martian soil, which means it can be even more effective than in the case of lunar settlers where an activator must be delivered from Earth [34].
4. Raw Materials Used for Manufacturing Lunar and Martian Habitats
5. Properties of the Materials Manufactured in Different Methods
6. Energy Efficiency and Other Challenges for Lunar and Martian Habitats
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chemical Compositions of Lunar Soils (Weight%) | Apollo 11 | Apollo 12 | Apollo 14 | Apollo 15 | Apollo 16 | Apollo 17 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landing Area: Mare | Landing Area: Mare Area | Landing Area: Highland | Landing Area: Highland | Landing Area: Highland—Mare Contact Area | Landing Area: Highland—Mare Contact Area | |
SiO2 | 42.15 | 46.30 | 48.10 | 46.95 | 45.26 | 40.95 |
TiO2 | 7.80 | 3.20 | 1.70 | 1.60 | 0.66 | 7.61 |
Al2O3 | 13.65 | 13.35 | 17.40 | 12.70 | 25.48 | 12.78 |
Cr2O3 | 0.30 | 0.38 | - | 0.47 | 0.25 | 0.46 |
Fe2O3 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
FeO | 15.55 | 16.30 | 10.40 | 16.29 | 6.58 | 15.76 |
MnO | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.34 | 0.21 |
MgO | 7.85 | 9.70 | 9.40 | 10.75 | 6.19 | 9.99 |
CaO | 11.95 | 10.65 | 10.70 | 10.49 | 15.17 | 11.03 |
Na2O | 0.49 | 0.46 | 0.70 | 0.33 | 0.45 | 0.32 |
K2O | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.55 | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.08 |
P2O5 | 0.08 | - | 0.51 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.06 |
S | - | - | - | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.12 |
LOI | 0.12 | - | - | - | 0.07 | - |
Chemical Compositions of Martial Soils (Weight %) | A-2 | A-4 | A-5 | A-8 | A-10 | A-15 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Target Site: After Deploy | Target Site: Next to Yogi | Target Site: Dark Next to Yogi | Target Site: Scooby Doo | Target Site: Next to Lamb | Target Site: Mermaid Dune | |
Na2O | 2.3 ± 0.9 | 3. 8 ± 1.5 | 2.8 ± 1.1 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.3 ± 0.7 |
MgO | 7.9 ± 1.2 | 8.3 ± 1.2 | 7.5 ± 1.1 | 7.1 ± 1.1 | 7.96 ± 1.2 | 7.3 ± 1.1 |
Al2O3 | 7.4 ± 0.7 | 9.1 ± 0.9 | 8.7 ± 0.9 | 9.1 ± 0.9 | 8.3 ± 0.8 | 8.4 ± 08 |
SiO2 | 51.0 ± 2.5 | 48.0 ± 2.4 | 47.9 ± 2.4 | 51.6 ± 2.6 | 48.2 ± 2.4 | 50.2 ± 2.5 |
SO3 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | 6.5 ± 1.3 | 5.6 ± 1.1 | 5.3 ± 1.1 | 6.2 ± 1.2 | 5.2 ± 1.0 |
Cl | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 |
K2O | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.3 ± 0.1 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.5 ± 0.1 |
CaO | 6.9 ± 1.0 | 5.6 ± 0.8 | 6.5 ± 1.0 | 7.3 ± 1.1 | 6.4 ± 1.0 | 6.0 ± 0.9 |
TiO2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.4 ± 0.2 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.2 |
FeO | 16.6 ± 1.7 | 14.4 ± 1.4 | 17.3 ± 1.7 | 13.4 ± 1.3 | 17.4 ± 1.7 | 17.1 ± 1.7 |
Org. Sum | 68.6 | 78.2 | 89.1 | 99.2 | 92.9 | 98.9 |
Material | Advantages | Disadvantages | Source of Information | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Traditional OPC-based concrete with lunar regolith as aggregate |
|
| [8] |
2 | Sulfur concrete |
|
| [8,28,29,30] |
3 | Sintered basalt/regolith |
|
| [31,32] |
4 | Magnesium chloride-based binder (Sorel cement)—33% magnesium chloride and 66% water |
|
| [33] |
5 | Phosphate-based binder |
|
| [30] |
6 | Epoxy/polymer-based cement |
|
| [8] |
Oxides (%wt) | DNA-1 | JSC-1A (2015) | JSC-1A (2010) | Martian Soil Pathfinder | Martian Soil Simulant JSC Mars-1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unit | (wt%) | (wt%) | (wt%) | (wt%) | (wt%) |
SiO2 | 41.90 | 42.95 | 45.70 | 42.00 | 43.48 |
TiO2 | 1.31 | 1.57 | 1.90 | 0.80 | 3.62 |
Al2O3 | 16.02 | 14.53 | 16.20 | 10.30 | 22.09 |
Fe2O3 | 14.60 | 11.50 | 12.40 | 21.70 | 16.08 |
FeO | 0.00 | 7.52 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
MgO | 6.34 | 8.64 | 8.70 | 7.30 | 4.22 |
CaO | 12.90 | 9.11 | 10.0 | 6.10 | 6.05 |
Na2O | 2.66 | 2.60 | 3.20 | 2.80 | 2.34 |
K2O | 2.53 | 0.71 | 0.71 | 0.60 | 0.70 |
P2O5 | 0.00 | 0.65 | 0.65 | 0.70 | 0.78 |
MnO | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.26 |
Source | [41] | [36] | [42] | [43] | [43] |
Method | Material | Compressive Strength | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Binder jetting | Regolith, solar cement, binder liquid | 20 MPa | [33] |
Extrusion | Regolith (72 wt%), urea, alkaline solution | 13 MPa | [39] |
Selective laser melting | Regolith | 4 MPa | [59] |
Solar sintering | Regolith | 2 MPa | [32] |
Casting: geopolymer | Regolith (76 wt%), liquid silicate, alkaline solution | 16 MPa | [36] |
Casting: Sulfur concrete | Regolith (65 wt%), sulfur | 31 MPa | [29] |
Casting: Thermite reaction | Regolith (67 wt%), aluminum powder | 18 MPa | [60] |
Vat polymerization | Regolith (69 wt%) | 5 MPa | [58] |
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Korniejenko, K.; Pławecka, K.; Kozub, B. An Overview for Modern Energy-Efficient Solutions for Lunar and Martian Habitats Made Based on Geopolymers Composites and 3D Printing Technology. Energies 2022, 15, 9322. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249322
Korniejenko K, Pławecka K, Kozub B. An Overview for Modern Energy-Efficient Solutions for Lunar and Martian Habitats Made Based on Geopolymers Composites and 3D Printing Technology. Energies. 2022; 15(24):9322. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249322
Chicago/Turabian StyleKorniejenko, Kinga, Kinga Pławecka, and Barbara Kozub. 2022. "An Overview for Modern Energy-Efficient Solutions for Lunar and Martian Habitats Made Based on Geopolymers Composites and 3D Printing Technology" Energies 15, no. 24: 9322. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249322