Identifying Themes in Energy Poverty Research: Energy Justice Implications for Policy, Programs, and the Clean Energy Transition

Abstract

Energy poverty affects numerous households across the globe and has several key implications and concerns for public health and social equity. Energy poverty is defined as “the lack of access to modern and affordable energy services”. Individuals or communities in energy poverty face limitations in accessing reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy. This review paper examines a focused subset of recent research on energy poverty highlighted by the “NSF 2026: Priorities and Research Needs for an Equitable Energy Transition” workshop and the United States Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Justice Policy and Analysis to help frame energy poverty’s impacts on policy, poverty alleviation, environmental impact, and social inequity. This review paper uses five themes to organize previous energy poverty work: (1) Energy Poverty and Justice Definitions and Metrics; (2) Behavioral Aspects of Energy Poverty; (3) Efficacy of Energy Assistance Programs; (4) Efficiency of Energy Efficiency Policy; (5) The Energy Transition and Environmental and Energy Justice. We found that the literature examined how comprehensive assessment of energy poverty requires going beyond standard statistics and metrics and must include an understanding of how underserved households interact with energy. We found strong optimism for the clean energy transition’s ability to significantly alleviate energy poverty, but only if policymakers include equity. Finally, we found that while there is plenty of work highlighting deficiencies there is a dearth of work examining successful implementations and how to replicate them which will be needed if the clean energy transition is to match its potential.

1. Introduction

Energy poverty affects numerous households across the globe and has several key implications and concerns for public health and social equity. Energy poverty is defined as “the lack of access to modern and affordable energy services [1]”. Individuals or communities in energy poverty face limitations in accessing reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy. Energy poverty has traditionally focused on the Global South because the vast majority of people (1.3 billion in 2010) who have no access to electricity live in the poorest regions of the world, Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [1]. However, previous research has uncovered the significance of energy poverty for developed world countries in the Global North [2]. In the US, African American, Latinx, and multifamily renters disproportionately endure energy burdens [3]. For instance, low-income households in US cities spend nearly three times more on energy costs than non-low-income households (7.2% versus 2.3%). According to [2], 14% of the US households, nearly 17 million families, received an energy disconnect notice and energy bills that undermined the ability of 21% of households to buy medicine and food.

The response to energy poverty in the Global North countries varies significantly. For instance, the UK has recognized energy poverty as a distinct issue and implemented integrated and effective policies to address energy poverty through climate and social justice initiatives [2]. In the United States, several initiatives and programs have been implemented to address energy poverty and improve access to affordable and reliable energy such as Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) and the Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP).

LIHEAP is a federal program that provides financial assistance to low-income households to help them meet their energy needs. It offers grants to assist with heating and cooling expenses, energy crisis intervention, and weatherization services to improve the energy efficiency of their housing units. WAP is a federal program that helps low-income households reduce their energy consumption and lower energy costs by providing free home weatherization services. These services include insulation, air sealing, and energy efficient upgrades to heating and cooling systems. LIHEAP Performance Measures Program promotes energy conservation and efficiency among LIHEAP recipients by encouraging practices that reduce energy consumption and enhance energy efficiency in low-income households. Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant Program (EECBG) provides grants to state, local and tribal governments to fund energy efficiency projects and initiatives. These projects aim to reduce energy consumption, improve energy efficiency, and decrease energy costs for low-income communities. Community Action agencies (CAA) are local organizations that administer various programs aimed at addressing poverty, including energy assistance programs. These agencies help low-income households with energy bill payment assistance, energy efficiency education and weatherization services.

The US has also focused on promoting renewable energy initiatives to address energy poverty and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Federal and state-level policies encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources. These initiatives aim to increase energy affordability, resilience, and sustainability. Utility Assistance Programs offered by many utility companies support low-income customers in meeting their energy needs. Furthermore, with the passage of the Bipartisan Infrastructure Act (BIF) and the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) new credits incentivizing clean energy technology adoption have been introduced. An addition to these credits new guidance led by the Justice 40 initiative aims to ensure that 40 percent of the overall benefits of certain Federal investments flow to disadvantaged communities that are marginalized, underserved, and overburdened by pollution.

Despite the progress of the previously mentioned programs and initiatives implemented by the US federal government, the scope of the assistance of these programs is insufficient to address the energy burdens of all vulnerable families [2]. As a result, after five decades of federal energy assistance, one-third of households in the US experience forms of energy poverty. According to [2], one primary gap is the lack of recognition of energy poverty as a national challenge that requires careful definition, goals, and policy evaluation.

The continuing prevalence of energy poverty globally and the new US initiatives aimed to help alleviate it make this an ideal time to examine the literature related to energy poverty. If we do not learn from previous experience, then the efficacy of the incoming programs could be diminished. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is twofold to (1) help categorize and describe recent and key energy poverty research identified by the” NSF 2026: Priorities and Research Needs for an Equitable Energy Transition” workshop and the United States Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Justice Policy and Analysis and (2) Identify how the main findings from these works should be applied to our new incentive heavy current environment or how their work should be expanded to address pressing issues.

We have chosen the “NSF 2026: Priorities and Research Needs for an Equitable Energy Transition” workshop [4] and the United States Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Justice Policy and Analysis [5] to center this work around because the workshop included top researchers who widely disseminate their work globally and because of the importance of energy justice in policy-making at the Department of Energy that created a new office to look at how policy should take energy justice into account and the work highlighted by this office will directly affect policy. The workshop hosted faculty from 11 prominent colleges and universities, to identify research priorities at the intersection of energy technology and social justice which led to the publication of a comment publication [6]. This work expands on these two sources by investigating the themes behind the literature that was highlighted, discussed, and recommended by these groups as a whole and by the people within these groups. Thus, understanding the works highlighted by these two sources will inform the reader of the work done by leading practitioners in the field and the work that is being used to directly influence US energy policy. We believe the limited scope of this paper aids in readability and in focus as it presents readers with a novel perspective that allows them to glean new insights quickly and explore the rest of the vast energy poverty as needed.

This review paper uses five themes, as shown in Figure 1, to organize the previous energy poverty work: (1) Energy Poverty and Justice Definitions and Metrics; (2) Behavioral Aspects of Energy Poverty; (3) Efficacy of Energy Assistance Programs; (4) Efficiency of Energy Efficiency Policy; (5) The Energy Transition and Environmental and Energy Justice. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 will provide a general background on energy poverty and energy justice. Section 3, Section 4, Section 5, Section 6 and Section 7 will describe the main idea behind one of the five themes, present a table of relevant papers within that theme including the methods and the ideas behind the results, and summarize how the research in that theme can be used or how it should be expanded. Section 8 will discuss our main findings. Finally, Section 9 will provide the main conclusions from this review and provide directions for future work.

2. Background on Energy Poverty and Energy Justice

Energy poverty refers to instances where households lack sufficient access to affordable and reliable energy services, thereby hindering their ability to meet basic needs and maintain a decent standard of living [7]. This condition disproportionately affects vulnerable and marginalized populations, including low-income families, elderly individuals, and those living in substandard housing [2]. A critical aspect of energy poverty lies in its connection to social inequality, where vulnerable communities face heightened exposure to its adverse effects. This not only perpetuates disparities but also has the potential to create energy underclasses [7]. Moreover, energy poverty poses significant risks to human well-being, particularly concerning inadequate access to heating and cooling, leading to health issues, and reduced thermal comfort [8].

Energy poverty is a pressing global issue that has gained growing concern for the uneven energy access and consumption among wealthy and low-income communities that expose impoverished families to energy poverty issues [9]. Although Global North cities, like those in the US, have relatively secure energy infrastructures and resources, low-income households and ethnic minorities often face challenges accessing affordable and clean energy services [10]. The implications of energy poverty are far-reaching, impacting human well-being, social inequality, housing conditions, and the environment [2,11]. As a result, addressing energy poverty requires targeted policies prioritizing social welfare and energy efficiency to promote equitable access to energy resources and support sustainable energy solutions.

However, energy poverty is a complex issue that requires a comprehensive assessment of accessibility, affordability, and quality of energy services for households and individuals. Energy poverty is a condition where a household lacks access to adequate, reliable, and affordable energy services, such as electricity and fuels for cooking and water heating. Several factors influence the nature and extent of energy poverty, including household income, the quality, and characteristics of housing units and technological innovations, and energy costs. Energy poverty is often measured as a percentage of household income spent on energy costs. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services considers energy costs above 6% per household income a “high energy burden”. However, many low-income households spend more than 10% of their income on energy bills, with some spending as much as 20–50%. Geographical variations like climate, energy costs, and home energy-efficiency also affect energy poverty. Households in colder climates may have high heating bills, while warmer climates may have high cooling costs. Rural areas often face higher energy burdens due to increased transportation and energy infrastructure costs. This reveals the significance of the spatial location of housing within metropolitan areas that influences the extent to which residents commute to job locations. Rural and peri-urban residents with low incomes may commute longer than their urban counterparts, and often lack easy access to transit or private vehicles, increasing both transportation and energy burdens [3].

Energy justice is a comprehensive and evolving concept [9] that includes an integrated approach to understanding and addressing the disparities and injustices in the global energy system [12,13]. Energy justice draws from the principles of environmental justice, including distributional justice, recognition-based justice, and procedural justice [12,14]. These principles provide a framework for identifying and addressing energy-related injustices, emphasizing equitable allocation of energy-related benefits and burdens, recognizing marginalized groups, and including affected communities in decision-making processes [13,15,16].

The concept of energy justice encompasses complex issues, such as excessive consumption of energy, which triggers greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, as well as the inability of low-income families to afford or access to necessary energy and fuels, resulting in energy poverty, under-consumption, and health burdens [10]. Energy justice seeks to mitigate energy poverty by supporting improved electricity access, sustainable energy use practices, poverty reduction, and enhanced well-being for all individuals, regardless of income, race, and ethnicity [9]. By integrating ethical considerations into energy policy and decision-making, energy justice is a guiding principle for a more just and inclusive energy system that fosters social equity and environmental sustainability [13]. The research further follows the development of renewable energy and technological innovations drawing from the principles of energy justice to address energy poverty, strengthen local economies by creating jobs, increase local tax revenues, and decrease energy costs. In most cases, communities needing economic growth and job opportunities cannot implement renewable energy to its full potential. There are several locations where such disadvantaged communities have a high potential for cost-effective renewable energy generation, and its implementation could spur economic growth and job creation.

3. Energy Poverty and Justice Definitions and Metrics

Metrics used to assess energy poverty encompass various indicators and methods aimed at quantifying its extent and impact on different societal levels. One such metric involves evaluating the percentage of household income spent on energy bills, commonly referred to as energy burden [17]. Additionally, researchers have used data on energy disconnect notices and instances of households forgoing essential needs, like food and medicine, to pay energy bills, to identify and measure energy insecurity or energy poverty [18].

Table 1. Selected Energy Poverty and Justice Definition and Metrics Studies.

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Cong et al., 2022 [19] Unveiling hidden energy poverty using the energy equity gap	Analyzed residential electricity consumption data and developed a new metric, “energy equity gap”.	The energy equity gap reveals a hidden aspect of energy poverty that is complementary to energy burden, showing that more than one metric is needed.
Nock et al., 2020 [20] Changing the policy paradigm: A benefit maximization approach to electricity planning in developing countries	(1) Formulated the expansion planning problem as a utility-maximization mixed-integer linear program. (2) Case study focused on a low-income country with limited electricity infrastructure. (3) Investigated investments that take consider stakeholder equity preferences using a Maximize Energy Access (MEA) model.	Considering equity metrics in planning resulted in a more interconnected grid with more transmission and decentralized energy sources and less centralized power.
Bednar et al., 2017 [21] The intersection of energy and justice: Modeling the spatial, racial/ethnic and socioeconomic patterns of urban residential heating consumption and efficiency in Detroit, Michigan	(1) Used GIS, bottom-up modelling, small-area estimation techniques. (2) Calculated energy consumption and Energy Use Intensity (EUI) using metrics such as: age of housing, income, demographics, expenditures, and more.	Revealed the importance of focusing on a comprehensive assessment of energy use rather than just consumption. A thorough energy assessment, including socioeconomic factors, may identify vulnerable households and effectively target energy efficiency programs.

lists a select set of papers that either develop new metrics or use a combination of metrics to measure energy poverty. It summarizes research approaches to examine energy poverty, energy consumption patterns, and the influence of demographic and socioeconomic factors on energy-related behaviors. These studies may inform energy policies and programs to alleviate energy poverty and promote sustainability. Furthermore, these studies highlight the importance of comprehensive studies that include integrated metrics and socioeconomic factors because a single metric or measure cannot understand the complexity of energy poverty and the implications of policy impacts over time.

Previous research summarized in Table 1 used several energy poverty metrics that may help conduct a comprehensive assessment. These metrics include: (1) energy consumption, (2) household income, (3) housing age and quality (4) socioeconomic information, including race and ethnicity (5) energy behavior, (6) access to energy-efficiency programs promoted by the federal government, (7) household with alternative energy sources, (8) access to technological innovations to mitigate energy use and emissions.

Furthermore, one of the most important recent innovations in the energy poverty metric space was the creation of the energy equity gap. Energy equity refers to fair distribution of benefits and burdens of energy production and consumption. An energy equity gap can occur when certain groups, often lower-income households, face disproportionate energy burdens [19]. These households typically spend a larger proportion of their income on energy costs than their wealthier counterparts. This is an issue of concern as it is a contributor to and a result of wider social and economic inequality.

Low-income households may live in less energy inefficient homes due to a lack of resources or options, leading to higher energy bills [3]. They may lack access to affordable clean energy sources and efficiency programs, meaning they spend more on fossil fuel-based energy and face associated health risks. Ref. [20] examined how generation and transmission planning that takes into account equity preferences could help alleviate these concerns albeit at a higher cost, but in order to use equity to help make decisions you must be able to quantify it and one tool to do so is the Maximize Energy Access (MEA) model. Finally, ref. [21] shows that energy metrics like energy use intensity can also highlight discrepancies in energy services even when energy burden does not. Ref. [21] illustrated the phenomenon mentioned in [19] namely that wealthier households can more easily afford energy efficient appliances or renewable energy technologies like solar panels, which can lower their energy bills and contribute to a cleaner environment.

Energy poverty whether that is measured by is closely tied to a variety of issues, including housing policy, social policy, and climate policy. Efforts to address this gap can include measures like targeted energy efficiency programs, subsidies for clean energy technologies for low-income households, improved regulations and standards for rental properties, and initiatives to increase the energy literacy of consumers. The low-income households tend to spend a higher proportion of their income on energy, primarily due to less energy efficient housing and limited access to clean, affordable energy sources. Addressing this gap requires a multi-faceted approach integrating housing, social and climate policies with a focus on energy efficiency, affordability, and clean energy access for low-income households. Policies that take into account multiple metrics beyond energy poverty can do a better job of achieving energy justice. Further research is needed at more granular levels so that utilities can have tools for their region and to further distinguish the different forms of energy poverty.

4. Behavioral Aspects of Energy Poverty

Energy behavior refers to the actions and habits of individuals or groups related to energy consumption and conservation. It includes a wide range of behaviors, including daily practices, such as turning off lights when not in use, to more significant and costly decisions like choosing energy efficient appliances, installing renewable energy systems, or opting for electric or hybrid vehicles over those powered by fossil fuels. Numerous factors, including socioeconomic factors, personal attitudes, beliefs about the environment, cultural norms, and energy policies, influence energy behaviors. Individuals more aware of the implications of energy use for the environment are often more likely to engage in energy-saving behaviors. This reveals the importance of environmental education for energy behavior. Similarly, financial incentives or policies promoting energy efficiency can encourage individuals, especially low-income households that struggle to afford technological innovations, to use and benefit from energy efficient appliances or renewable energy systems. Energy-related behaviors significantly affect energy use, greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable development. By understanding these behaviors, policymakers and researchers can develop strategies to promote energy conservation and the transition to clean energy sources.

Table 2. Selected Behavioral Energy Poverty Studies.

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Reames et al., 2021 [22] The Three E’s Revisited: How Do Community-Based Organizations Define Sustainable Communities and Their Role in Pursuit of?	Surveyed CBOS questions such as: (1) How do CBO leaders identify sustainable communities?; (2) How essential are each of the three sustainability pillars to their purpose?	These results illustrated how different terms and missions affected how CBOs understood and behaved to achieve their version of sustainable communities. For some energy poverty was essential but for others it did not matter at all.
Fortier et al., 2019 [23] Introduction to evaluating energy justice across the life cycle: A social life cycle assessment approach	(1) Created evaluation indicators for the social life cycle assessment to understand how different stakeholders behaved under different energy scenarios. (2) Evaluated stakeholders including electricity consumers, the local community, workers, and society.	This tool could be used to predict how certain interventions would affect different customers and if your intended objectives would be achieved.
Cong et al., 2022 [19] Unveiling hidden energy poverty using the energy equity gap	Analyzed residential electricity consumption data and developed a new metric and illustrated “energy limiting behavior”.	The results show that households can limit the energy they would otherwise use to save money. This energy limiting behavior affects energy equity.

lists a select set of papers that either investigate how household behavior affects the efficacy of certain programs and how it affects energy poverty overall.

The articles in Table 2 show that how stakeholders define topics related to energy poverty is a key indicator to how they will act on energy poverty. Even for benevolent organizations like CBOs [22] shows that their desired impact on energy poverty can be negligible. As a result [23] created a social life cycle assessment framework that helps decision makers understand how different stakeholders would act under different scenarios. Lastly, the work of [19] already highlighted in the energy metric section shows how households do respond to energy burden by limiting their energy use.

Therefore, behavioral aspects of energy poverty and conservation should be converted into quantifiable metrics to delineate informed decisions. A comprehensive understanding of the energy behavior of low-income populations, who tend to use little energy but endure poor living conditions, can help address energy poverty challenges more effectively. The research directly relating energy behavior to investment or operational decisions is limited and should be expanded. Furthermore, policymakers must consider stakeholders will respond to their policies and if that will affect its efficacy.

5. Efficacy of Energy Assistance Programs

Efficacy of energy assistance programs, in the context of the United States, refers to the effectiveness of various initiatives aimed at promoting energy conservation and increasing the use of energy efficient technologies. These programs include financial incentives such as rebates or tax credits for installing energy efficient appliances or renewable energy systems, educational campaigns to promote energy saving behaviors, and regulations requiring increased energy efficiency in buildings and vehicles. The efficacy of these programs is typically measured by the amount of energy saved or the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions achieved relative to the program’s cost. This can include direct savings from reduced energy consumption, as well as indirect benefits such as improved public health from reduced air pollution.

Table 3. Selected Energy Efficiency Program Studies.

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Saunders et al., 2021 [24] Energy Efficiency: What Has Research Delivered in the Last 40 Years?	Assessed the direct and indirect benefits of policies using metrics like: energy technology costs, energy productivity, energy use per unit of economic output, emission reductions, and social benefit.	Energy efficiency gains can spur the development of new energy using technologies and increase disposable income and profitable production output increasing energy demand
Raissi et al., 2020 [25] “If we had a little more flexibility”. Perceptions of programmatic challenges and opportunities implementing government funded low-income energy efficiency programs	(1) Conducted interviews with program managers from the DOE Weatherization Assistance Program (2) Evaluation metrics included: percentage of low-income households, implementation procedures, energy and non-energy related benefits, implementation challenges, and opportunities for expansion.	Three funding related challenges (funding instability, funding allocation formula, limited advertising and marketing funding) and two regulatory related challenges (cumbersome paperwork and restrictive guidelines) dramatically affect the efficacy of these programs and keep them from achieving their desired outcomes.
Bednar et al., 2020 [2] Recognition of and response to energy poverty in the United States	(1) Critical analytical study of the energy poverty assistance programs in the US. (2) Evaluated based on Department of Health and Human Services LIHEAP annual performance goals, specifically the recipiant targeting index. (3) Measured metrics such as: cost-effective energy savings, health and safety benefits, job creation, reliability, number of retrofits.	The absence of a formal recognition of energy poverty constrains the efficient application of aid. Instead, most aid is delivered based on metrics like income which constrains the ability to address energy poverty and its root causes directly.

lists a select set of papers that investigate the efficacy of selected energy assistance programs. The table includes the title and authors of a paper, a short description of the methods used, and a short summary of the results.

Past studies reveal the importance of energy justice and equity in energy policy interventions and provide valuable insights to optimize the effectiveness of energy assistance programs in addressing energy poverty and promoting sustainability. As concurred by [2,24,25], government energy efficiency programs can create schemes to reduce the energy burden on low-income households. However, ensuring that government funding actually reaches the targeted beneficiaries is also essential. Because some of the poorest families in the US face citizenship, poverty, gender disparities, and language barriers, policymakers should deploy community level assistance that help engage these residents in government assistance programs [26]. Furthermore, policymakers should evaluate the efficiency of energy assistance programs on a regular basis and tweak them as necessary.

While this research highlighted how energy efficiency programs fails, there is not much research into the success of energy efficiency policy. Some works show the potential of benefits of energy efficiency implementations [27,28], but they only illustrate potential not actual results. Given how important energy efficiency is to the clean energy transition (e.g., switching out furnaces for heat pumps) research showcasing successful programs and identifying how that success can be replicated is essential. Nonetheless, policy should focus on how to target low-income households so that these policies improve energy equity.

6. Efficacy of Energy Policy

The efficacy of energy efficiency policy includes examination and assessment of policies designed to meet building and appliance performance standards typically through the uptake of green building certifications. Green building certifications, like LEED are rating systems that evaluate the sustainability and environmental impact of buildings. They cover a range of factors, including energy efficiency, water conservation, material usage, indoor environmental quality and more. The evaluation of such policies is crucial to understand their effectiveness, cost-efficiency, impact on promoting sustainable construction practices. This could involve looking at various aspects, such as the number of buildings obtaining certifications after the policy implementation, the reduction in energy usage, improvements in indoor air quality, or the increased use of sustainable materials. Policies to encourage higher building performance standards or green building certifications can include financial incentives like tax credits or subsidies for certified buildings, regulatory measures like building codes mandating certain sustainability practices, or educational and promotional campaigns. An effective policy evaluation would assess whether these measures successfully incentivize green building practices and result in a significant uptick in certification. The assessment could also identify potential barriers or shortcomings, thereby informing recommendations for policy refinement.

Table 4. Selected Energy Policy Studies.

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Glasgo et al., 2020 [29] Simulating a residential building stock to support regional efficiency policy	Performed a comparative analysis of the residential sector using building simulations tools and energy audit records of single-family homes in Pennsylvania. Detailed residential characteristics provided by the Public Utilities Commission (PUC)	Showed that the energy efficiency gains can spur the development of new energy using technologies and increase disposable income and profitable production output increasing energy demand.
Adekan et al., 2020 [30] Federal policy, local policy, and green building certifications in the U.S.	Performed a qualitative examination of policies that encourage green building certifications specifially LEED across numerous metropolitan statsical areas (MSA)	Local and Federal policy can increase uptake in green building certification. However, Energy consumption information is not available for these buildings making it difficult to measure the real impacts of greening a retrofitted building.
Keady et al., 2021 [31] Energy justice gaps in renewable energy transition policy initiatives in Vermont	Used an anti-resilience framework, a perspective that highlights the need to change existing structures of inequality rather than just helping individuals adapt or become resilient within them.	Finds that marginalized groups are more likely to face energy vulnerability as they lack access to sufficient and affordable energy. Furthermore, Non-white and renting respondents were significantly less likely to report having solar panels, suggesting that the benefits of renewable energy policies are not reaching these vulnerable groups.
Heleno et al., 2022 [32] Optimizing equity in energy policy interventions: A quantitative decision support framework for energy justice	Used a linear programming model that derives an optimal mix of interventions that minimize energy security. The approach combines sociodemographic and techno-economic models centered on energy security and equity.	Shows that by incorporating different sociodemographic dimensions, equitable policy interventions become heterogeneous, specific to each community, which indicates a need for holistic (place based) implementations. Results should be used to inform decision making as a starting discussion point.

lists a select set of papers that investigate the efficacy of energy efficiency policy that aim to improve building performance standards.

This research highlights the significance of energy efficiency policies and their potential to mitigate climate change and energy poverty [29]. Integrating energy efficiency policies with broader policies targeting the structural factors that lead to energy poverty [31] could lead to a more comprehensive approach to tackling the energy burden low-income households face such as improving policy to encourage the adoption of green building [30]. By promoting higher building standards, policies can encourage sustainable construction practices and contribute to reducing energy consumption, improving indoor air quality, and fostering the use of sustainable materials [29,30]. However, the effectiveness of these policies varies and as a result these tools should be used to present communities with feasible solutions and have them discuss internally which set of solutions best fit their needs [32].

The research presented in the table suggests that an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating various academic disciplines, can enhance the planning and evaluation of decarbonization efforts, ultimately leading to a more equitable and climate resilient future. This echos work done showing the synergy of aligning energy with other sectors like transportation, water, or agriculture to reduce emissions and lower costs [27,33]. However, as mentioned in the energy-efficiency efficacy section, the lack of research exploring successful examples limits the impacts by not providing a blueprint for successful action. This research does an excellent job on illustrating why incorporating equity is important and providing potential frameworks to do so, but does not yet show what those successes look like. As the effects of various new subsidies and laws take effect there will be opportunities for researchers to evaluate positive examples that detail how they can be replicated.

7. The Clean Energy Transition and Energy Justice

The clean energy transition is the process of shifting from traditional or non-renewable energy sources, like fossil fuels, to new, sustainable and renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydropower. Social inclusivity suggests that this transition should not just be about technical changes but should also consider the social dimensions of energy systems. It should contribute to social equity by ensuring fair distribution of energy resources and benefits across all societal groups, especially marginalized and vulnerable communities. This can be encouraged by focusing on several key areas:

• Community engagement where communities that are marginalized, are actively involved in decision-making processes related to energy transition. Their input and feedback can guide the development of energy projects that meet their needs and respect their rights.
• Affordability—The cost of new energy technologies can be a barrier to access for low-income households. Policies and initiatives should aim to make renewable energy affordable for all to ensure broad adoption.
• Job Creation—The energy transition can create jobs in the renewable energy sector. Training and educational programs can ensure that these opportunities are accessible to people from diverse backgrounds, contributing to social inclusivity.
• Energy Justice—Energy transition should aim to address historical inequities in energy access and the impacts of energy production. This involves reducing pollution in marginalized communities and ensuring fair access to the benefits of renewable energy.

Table 5. Selected Selected Clean Energy Transistion and Energy Justice Studies.

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Heeter et al., 2022 [34] Incorporating energy justice into utility-scale photovoltaic deployment: A policy framework	Evaluates two mechanisms to contribute to restorative justice: (1) Direct Electricity Bill Reduction and (2) procurement of utility-scale PV by entities from PV projects financed, owned, and/or developed by minority-owned businesses.	The findings suggest that while the mechanism of direct electricity bill reduction can provide some relief, it does not necessarily contribute to restorative justice via wealth creation. The paper concludes by proposing specific policy and program recommendations to ensure that the benefits of utility-scale PV systems are properly distributed to underserved communities, thus contributing to a more equitable energy transition.
Fonseca et al., 2021 [35] Climate-Induced Tradeoffs in Planning and Operating Costs of a Regional Electricity System	Created a two-stage optimization modeling framework to quantify tradeoffs between climate change mitigation, reliability, and other social metrics.	Shows that planning decisions that do not include climate-induced impacts will increase social costs, including health effects, and increase loss of load incidents.
Elmallah et al., 2022 [36] Frontlining energy justice: Visioning principles for energy transitions from community-based organizations in the United States	Reviewed 60 visioning documents from CBOs outlining what energy justice meant to them.	Identified 6 principles of a just energy future: (1) being place-based, (2) addressing the root causes and legacies of inequality, (3) shifting the balance of power in existing forms of energy governance, (4) creating new, cooperative, and participatory systems of energy governance and ownership, (5) adopting a rights-based approach, and (6) rejecting false solutions.
Goforth et al., 2022 [37] Air pollution disparities and equality assessments of US national decarbonization strategies	Investigated the distributional equality of air pollution impacts by combining an optimization based capacity expansion model with a reduced complexity air pollution model.	Without any decarbonization policies, the authors find that Black and high poverty communities could face higher PM2.5 concentrations. Nationwide mandates requiring the deployment of renewable or low-carbon technologies to the extent of more than 80% can achieve equal distribution of air pollution across all demographic groups.
Janicke et al., 2023 [38] Air pollution co-benefits from strengthening electric transmission and distribution systems	Created a lifecycle assessment and uncertainty analysis to estimate T&D losses contributed global emissions and cost analysis for CO${}_2$ reductions	Shows that investing in T&D infrastructure could be beneficial for reducing air pollution in disadvantaged neighborhoods quickly, even more so that speeding up a fully decarbonized system.
Baker et al., 2020 [39] Robust portfolio decision analysis: An application to the energy research and development portfolio problem	Performed a Robust Portfolio Decision Analysis informed by a new dominance concept called “Belief Dominance”	Shows that an energy just portfolio must include: (1) the allocation of research funds across energy technologies; (2) the impact of the performance of a technology in terms of cost and efficiencies

and

Table 6. Selected Clean Energy Transistion and Energy Justice Studies. (Continued).

Article	Methods	Main Findings
Ravikumar et al., 2022 [6] Enabling an equitable energy transition through inclusive research	Performed descriptive analysis on the stratgies implemented by the government for an equitable energy transition	Outlined five key action items for government agencies and philanthropic institutions to integrate into their strategies: (1) Reframing Equity; (2) Direct Engagement; (3) Developing Formal Mechanisms; (4) Expanding Review and Award Criteria; (5) Instituting Structural Reforms
Reames, 2021 [22] Exploring Residential Rooftop Solar Potential in the United States by Race and Ethnicity	Analyzed the National Renewable Energy Lab’s (NREL) Rooftop Energy Potential of Low-Income Communities in America (REPLICA) dataset to evaluate single family rooftop potential across racial and ethnic majority census tracts	Illustrates that even if the majority of homes in communities of color are suitable to execute solar energy sources, an equitable clean energy transition is only possible with policies targeting racial equity.
Spurlock et al., 2022 [40] Equitable deep decarbonization: A framework to facilitate energy justice based multidisciplinary modeling	Created an Equitable Deep Decarbonization Framework to the tenets of energy justice to decarbonization models	Argues that modeling for deep decarbonization needs to enter restorative justice and develops an equitable deep decarbonization framework for those ends.

list a select set of papers that investigate the how the clean energy transition can address energy poverty and support energy justice. This is by far the largest section, and it shows that energy poverty researchers see the clean energy transition as an opportunity to address many long-standing equity issues and are generally positive about the future.

Recent technological developments to enable the transition towards environmentally friendly energy sources have opened opportunities for the government to support the reduction in energy burden. Although previous scholars demonstrated the potential of technological developments [27,28,41], especially solar energy sources, to reduce the energy burden of low-income households, racial and ethnic minorities still face the barriers to get the government funding for the assistance programs [22,34,37]. These reveal the gaps of the energy transition and the potential opportunities to combat climate change and support energy justice [40]. Furthermore, these research papers underscore the importance of incorporating energy justice principles into the deployment of renewable energy systems and having an overall energy justice framework for the clean energy transition [6,36,39]. Moreover, they highlight the complexities and challenges associated with climate induced changes in electricity systems and how certain interventions can have an outsized effect now [35,38]. By addressing these issues, the energy transition can move towards a more inclusive and sustainable future, ensuring fair distribution of benefits and mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.

This theme will inspire numerous other articles on how the energy transition can be successful. However, as mentioned in the efficacy sections, as successes appear work needs to be done to illustrate how to replicate those successes. Furthermore, most of the energy poverty work is focused on electricity use in buildings, but as vehicles electrify energy poverty will be more clearly tied to transportation poverty and those issues will have to be addressed as well. Overall, the clean energy transition provides a plethora of topics to investigate and energy researchers have plenty of space to explore.

From the policymakers perspective many of the decisions they make to address climate change will have a positive impact on energy justice. However, the ordering of these policies could benefit disadvantaged communities much more quickly for the same costs. Policymakers will have to acquaint themselves with the possible decision sets and researchers will have to educate them when decisions can improve equity and climate simultaneously especially in the instances when there is no extra cost.

8. Discussion

Energy poverty and justice are critical issues that demand comprehensive attention and action. As an evolving concept, energy justice aims to address disparities and injustices in the global energy system through equitable energy distribution, inclusive, participatory processes, and transparent procedures.

This review paper shows that research has shown relationships between energy poverty and social disparities which could vary depending on the specific metrics and scope of the research. The research underscores the interconnectedness between energy and other social disadvantages demonstrating how limited access to affordable and reliable energy services exacerbates existing social inequalities, including income disparities, racial and ethnic disparities, housing disparities, and health disparities. It emphasizes that energy poverty has multi-dimensional impacts on individuals and communities, extending beyond mere energy access. It affects various aspects of well-being, including health, economic opportunities, and environmental justice, amplifying social disparities. The research highlights that energy poverty in the context of social disparities is influenced by systematic factors such as income inequality, residential segregation, and historical socioeconomic disadvantages. It recognizes that addressing energy poverty requires addressing the root causes of social disparities and systemic inequalities. We have also come across research that emphasizes the importance of developing and implementing equitable solutions to address energy poverty. It stresses the need for policies and programs that prioritize the needs of disadvantaged communities, promote access to affordable and clean energy, improve housing conditions, bridge the digital divide, and ensure equal opportunities for health, and economic development. This is especially important as the world transitions to new clean energy technologies. The clean energy technology provides an opportunity to address many inequities, but only if policymakers explicitly include equity considerations in their plans.

Furthermore, the efficacy of energy assistance programs and energy efficiency policies must be continuously evaluated to ensure that they effectively target and alleviate energy poverty. Addressing energy poverty and promoting energy justice requires a collaborative effort from policymakers, researchers, communities, non-profit organizations, and businesses. By integrating ethical considerations into energy policies, embracing social inclusivity, and adopting sustainable energy practices, we can work towards a more just and inclusive energy system that fosters social equity, environmental sustainability, and overall well-being for all individuals and communities.

9. Conclusions and Future Work

This paper critically reviews past research on energy poverty in the themes identified by the “NSF 2026: Priorities and Research Needs for an Equitable Energy Transition” workshop and the United States Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Justice Policy and Analysis as research priorities for an equitable energy transition in the US. We conclude with our main findings and directions for future work.

Our research allows us to draw a number of conclusions. First, energy poverty is a complex issue that requires a comprehensive assessment of the socioeconomic characteristics of households, housing quality, household energy consumption related to geographical and climatic conditions, as well as the access (or not) to energy efficient technologies and energy costs. However, this comprehensive assessment must go beyond commonly collected statistics that help calculate common metrics such as energy burden, and provide context for the energy circumstances of potentially vulnerable households and populations. Second, energy behavior significantly influences energy consumption and the implications of energy justice policy for the sustainable and just energy transition. Household socioeconomic characteristics, culture, environmental education, and awareness influence energy behavior. A comprehensive understanding of how households not only use energy but also limit their energy use and interact with their energy providers may help policymakers implement more effective policies. Third, despite the progress of energy assistance programs in providing financing and incentives for energy justice, many of the most vulnerable households in the US face structural obstacles that preclude them from influencing policymaking. Our research revealed one critical literature gap: the need to understand successful energy efficiency policies to expand policies and serve vulnerable households more effectively. Fourth, past literature highlighted the potential of energy policy to support energy efficient and energy just buildings and communities. However, the effectiveness of energy efficiency policy significantly varies because many projects lack a comprehensive understanding of the energy efficiency needs of communities. Fifth, the energy justice principles prioritizing the meaningful inclusion and engagement of vulnerable households facing energy poverty may pave the way for a sustainable and just energy transition.

Past literature highlights the significance of a comprehensive examination of the varied dimensions of energy poverty, including the inequities in energy and transportation poverty. The energy transition may serve to address a plethora of energy injustices to reduce energy consumption and improve the living conditions of the most vulnerable households. Future research should focus on examining how multidisciplinary projects and programs that effectively and democratically engage vulnerable communities, community-based organizations, industry, and governments can be scaled and replicated. Eliminating energy poverty and achieving energy justice is a continuous fight, one that although the clean energy transition may aid in, researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders will have to continuously and collaboratively work on to win.