Geographies of Energy: Key Issues and Challenges towards Spatial Justice Concepts

Abstract

The contemporary world is uneven not only in terms of the quality of life and economic development, but also in cultural issues that define awareness of global development processes. Geographies of energy co-create various energy paradigms and territorial development scenarios. This paper has two general aims. First, we want to identify the main fields of study within the geographies of energy. We try to define a general model of geographic analysis in terms of key concepts. The second aim concerns the definition of perspectives of geography of energy as a growing field of interest for researchers. We believe that geographies of energy should undertake a contemporary transition in this area from the point of view of scale and relativity resulting from the presented dimensions of spatiality and locality, i.e., differential, vertical, horizontal and transversal approaches.

1. Introduction

The issues of obtaining, processing and distributing energy are crucial for every aspect of social and economic development. The history of civilisation and the explanation of contemporary regional and global development cannot omit the key issue of obtaining energy and energy security [1,2]. This is particularly important in countries or political and economic groupings that use their own resources or access them in the process of competing and gaining advantage in the global economic system [3]. Energy is an important aspect in every scale of human geography, from the functioning of organisms and ecological systems, through territorial social organisations (communities and societies), to the global economic and political system [4]. Territoriality as a spatial dimension of power and the construction of societies includes circulatory systems, with the energy system being one of the most flexible and at the same time sensitive to political stimuli [5,6].

In 2022, the world once again found itself at a turning point in history when challenges related to ensuring energy security have once again become a key element of everyday political debates and concern for maintaining standards of the quality of life [7]. The war in Ukraine is waged in a specific place in space [8]. Intermarium, where political and economic interests intersect, is an arena of a brutal conflict where energy issues are used as a weapon against not only people but also the foundations of the functioning of states. Geography in its various dimensions and scales has become a strong subject of narration, and issues related to the diversity and specificity of space are crucial in explaining phenomena and processes as well as predicting further events [9,10]. The violent events of recent months, which involve key global players on a scale unprecedented in recent decades, have made us realise how large the inequalities in the global system of links and exchanges are. In the coming years, the energy, food and refugee crisis, together with other effects of systemic instability, will co-define the new social and economic geography in terms of the emergence of new spatial orders [11,12].

The last 20 years of social and economic transformations, i.e., since the turn of the 21st century, have been a time of unprecedented technological acceleration, especially in the field of digital technologies, as well as the development of artificial intelligence and bioengineering. The environmental costs of this development are manifested primarily in climate change, which entails interference in other elements of the planet’s ecological system. The huge global increase in population, accompanied by higher social expectations related to the increase in the quality of life (including consumption), leads—among other things—to increased demand for energy [13,14]. Energy transition towards the low-carbon economy has become a necessity, and modern technologies determine a new, yet still unpostulated in many regions of the world, logic of social development. Energy transition, as one of the elements of the Green Deal, has become a challenge, especially for countries that have delayed restructuring or, due to social and/or economic costs, are postponing it to an indefinite future [15,16]. The low-carbon economy and the phenomena that determine it, including the social ones (e.g., social awareness), are one of the manifestations of global inequalities. Geography is no longer just a matter of location, but it has become a territorial system of relationships in the real and virtual worlds [17,18].

The contemporary world is uneven, not only in terms of the standard of living and economic development, but also in terms of cultural issues that define the awareness of global processes and thus the social perception of change. The conflict in Ukraine and tensions in other key regions for geopolitics, as well as demographic, social, economic and technological megatrends of global development are defined by various geographies, i.e., the overlapping of various conditions and reactions to them in various places around the world [18,19]. Energy geographies co-create different energy paradigms and thus different territorial development scenarios in this respect [20]. Geographies, of course, do not answer all questions about the future of the planet and its individual parts. However, by rooting the explanations in earthly space, they point to a number of key issues in terms of social, political and economic structures and processes [17,21,22]. This paper has two general goals. First of all, the authors want to identify the main fields of study within the geographies of energy along with the research rationale. Therefore, we are trying to define a general model of geographical analysis, i.e., one that describes the cognitive whole in this field of human geography research. The second objective concerns the determination of the perspectives of the geographies of energy as a growing field of interest for researchers, but in relation to other fields of scientific knowledge. The study presents the perspective emphasizing the personal assessments of the authors on the future directions of the field of geographies of energy.

2. Geography Matters

2.1. Geography as Spatial System

The concept of human geography as a social practice presents research activity as a complex process dependent on many global, regional and local conditions [23]. Different models of knowledge and scientific practices should be assessed, taking into account the positive and negative effects of both the change and the persistence of mental and institutional structures. It is important for human geography because the creation of its research identity is a complex issue in terms of the specificity/type of knowledge produced and methods/tools [24,25]. Therefore, it is vital to constantly try to organise the subject field of human geography and its various parts (e.g., energy geography) in the context of the tradition of research and contemporary intellectual debates in social sciences [26]. The distinctiveness of human geography in relation to other social sciences may be considered in relation to the research subject and method. The most important is the chorological concept, in which the study of spatial relationships between objects/elements that build the system (differentiation, distribution, location, etc.) is crucial [27,28]. From the point of view of other scientific disciplines, the clearest distinctiveness of geography boils down to the methods of spatial and regional analysis, the final product of which is cartographic representations presenting the features of quantitative and qualitative spatial differentiation. Spatial research is the most characteristic determinant of human geography although there is no consensus among researchers as to one universal interpretation of the essence of space [29]. For this reason, geographers frequently look for alternative concepts, e.g., landscape, place, environment and region, which expose territorial systems distinguished for some reason [23]. The abovementioned issues are also related to the sphere of values (e.g., economic versus social), which means that many interpretations of spatial phenomena touch upon critical, ideational and often political and ideological issues [30]. Among the many elements that can form the basis for practical activities from the point of view of the geographies of energy, we have selected a few that, in our opinion, form a broad basis for the geographical analysis of the problems.

2.2. Resources and Environmental Values

In a broad sense, everything that surrounds us is related to the existence of energy potential. All products of nature, as well as the products made by man in connection with nature, contain energy resources. The level of civilisation development, and thus specific technological possibilities, determine the assessment of the usefulness of given resources and their conversion into values. From a geographical point of view, one can therefore talk about resources and territorial values, and in this case, about resources and energy values [31,32]. Serving 8 billion people living on the planet with the pressure to increase the quality of life, satisfy greater food needs and spatial mobility requires an increasing input of energy. The implementation of the assumptions of the sustainable development policy, especially the climate protection goals and the Green Deal in various dimensions, draws attention to the need to assess environmental resources towards a low-carbon economy [33]. The territory (its geographical features) is currently subject to an in-depth assessment regarding the possibility of maximising the substitution of non-renewable energy sources with renewable sources. What is significant here is the research potential inherent in the assessment of ecosystem services in terms of the use of renewable energy flowing to the Earth’s surface from outside the system, i.e., solar radiation and its influence on the movement of air and water masses and on an increase in biomass. Therefore, geographical analysis aims at explaining the relationships (dependencies) in the environmental system of a given area from two points of view. Firstly, dependence on the path associated with the previous paradigm of economic development (high-emission and resource-intensive economy) and the possibility of its transition to the paradigm of low-emission and circular economy [34,35]. Secondly, the delimitation of geographical areas particularly predisposed to the technological use of renewable energy sources. Of course, these issues are greatly related to investment opportunities, and to the largest extent, access to financial sources, technology and defining the legal and institutional framework for change [36,37].

2.3. Global Space and Geopolitics

Geography deals in this respect primarily with civilisational areas, i.e., it indicates political, economic and cultural issues of large regions on the scale of continents or their large parts. This issue in the historical sense concerns the emergence of great civilisations, their development, the decline of some areas and the growth of subsequent ones. Geopolitics is the result of an inevitable clash of civilisations since the time when geographical discoveries led to obtaining the knowledge of the entire Earth’s space. Energy, with the types of sources from which it is drawn, is of great importance when it comes to the issue of rivalry between great political powers. Technological advantages related to the development of science determine the fate of indirect (e.g., economic) and direct (e.g., military) competition [38]. The historical movement of global development centres towards the “north” and the emergence of a group of countries called “global north” would not be possible without mastering the possibility of acquiring such raw materials as, first of all, hard coal and lignite, followed by oil and natural gas. It has always been important for overcoming spatial barriers through continuous modernisation of transportation [1]. The possibility of obtaining raw materials from new deposits, as well as the transport of raw materials, is still crucial in the global race for world primacy, which has been demonstrated explicitly by the war in Ukraine. At the same time, countries whose development was based on the massive processing of energy resources are leaders in the energy transition towards a low-carbon economy. Path dependency and geographical analysis of economic transformation, including energy transition, are a few of the most frequently undertaken studies on the geography of global development [39]. Alternative and dispersed energies are also an opportunity for poorer countries to enter the path of sustainable development and increase the quality of life of their inhabitants [40].

2.4. Territory and Development

Territorial organisation is a matter of exercising political and economic power in societies. The state system and the law must recognise spatial issues in territorial management and planning. The crucial role in shaping the territorial energy system is played by the spatial policy, which is a function of responsibility and awareness of the authorities. The spatial policy is a deliberate activity of governments, consisting of rational shaping of development through proper use of space, ensuring the maintenance of spatial order. The authorities’ activities enable the correct and effective shaping and use of spatial development in terms of energy resources and infrastructure. The implementation of spatial policy assumptions is carried out using legal instruments, i.e., planning documents regarding the relationship between spatial planning and financial possibilities. Spatial planning at every level must take into account the issues of energy supply to society and the economy. The key role is played by energy networks, whose course and mutual integration need to take into consideration the distribution of elements of settlement and production systems within the territory and its vicinity [41]. No state, political grouping of states (e.g., EU) or region can be treated as spatially isolated areas. In energy policy, it is important to be able to transmit energy in the event of its excess and, above all, shortage in specific circumstances. This often happens when the forces of nature are unable to produce adequate power in wind or solar installations. The energy infrastructure is considered strategic and thus subject to special protection against sabotage, attacks, etc. Nuclear power plants are a special case of high potential vulnerability to external attacks. Geographical distribution of transmission networks and places of collection and processing of energy resources is an issue for modern countries to analyse in many respects. It is even more important as the infrastructure is evolving as a result of policies leading to a low-carbon economy. Delays in the modernisation of energy networks may result in system inefficiency and, consequently, in the transition backwardness and inability to meet climate protection objectives. The law can stimulate changes positively, or as a result of social pressure, it also may also create restrictions. Relations between the economy, society and space are always highly conflict-generating [42].

2.5. Landscape and Land Use

Landscape issues have been one of the most traditional lines of research in geography since the classical stage of its development. The cultural landscape, especially the urbanised landscape, has become the most common form of environment in which man lives. Growing urbanisation, especially in the countries of the global south, as a result of, among other things, the effect of natural increase, creates huge demands on the energy system. On the one hand, renewable resources are crucial, and on the other hand, the pressure to develop alternative energy does not bypass any of the world’s regions. Technological innovations are creating new forms of the “energy landscape”, especially in terms of power-generating units [43]. Traditional power units based on fuel combustion with a high concentration of energy production sites are replaced or supplemented by many dispersed installations, such as wind-power plants, small hydropower plants and photovoltaic farms or photovoltaic household installations. In highly developed countries, this has changed the character of the landscape in many areas and led to changes in the forms of land use [44]. The geographical dimension obviously concerns the relationship between new forms of the energy landscape and environmental conditions, i.e., the possibilities of using alternative sources in a given region and place. An important issue is also the relationship between natural factors and the possibilities of energy production in the field of agricultural forms of land use (crop production) and the management of animal waste. Technological changes will certainly lead to the emergence of new forms of landscape, especially on a small scale where consumption is concentrated, and social pressure to achieve a higher quality of life is increasing [45].

2.6. Location and Place

The distinction between location and place is important not only for distinguishing between production (economic) and consumption (social) issues, but also theoretical and methodological approaches. The concepts of space determine the different nature of the relationship between its elements. Location was extremely important for the first stages of production development, including energy production. Traditional location factors have been important in the case of non-renewable resources. Currently, to a large extent, their role relates to the concentration of human and material resources in settlement systems (metropolitan systems). The development of the global system has also led to the creation of a regional system of competition between countries, and more often corporations, that are looking for optimal locations in terms of profit and product sales. The issues of obtaining and transporting raw materials are of strategic importance for the regions of modern concentration of enterprises [46].

Decarbonisation and energy security, as well as the resulting location strategies, have largely changed the logic of the functioning of spatial systems and the understanding of space. The dispersal of energy production based on obtaining it from wind and solar power has drawn attention to the environment again, especially in terms of nature, its protection and climate goals. Therefore, the classic concept of location is often replaced by place, which, on the one hand, expresses social responsibility for the environment in the context of protecting the atmosphere and the Green Deal logic. On the other hand, the place as a constructed space is inscribed in the relations of being—threats, hope, survival strategies, needs satisfaction, etc. In the context of energy security, the status of a place is defined in relation to resilience, social foundations of existence, functioning, as well as migration and adaptation to new environmental conditions [47].

3. Perspectives for Geographies of Energy

3.1. Towards Scientific Transdisciplinarity

The perspectives for the development of geographies of energy should be considered not only from the point of view of the state and the condition of contemporary human geography, but also taking into account the most important trends of a theoretical and methodological nature of social sciences [48,49]. One of the main expectations placed on the social sciences is the search for the practical application of knowledge. In European conditions, this is confirmed, among other things, in the research funding programs being created (e.g., Research and Innovation funding programme). The principles of scientific work, with their substantive and organisational foundations, are built on the belief that inter-institutional and multidisciplinary cooperation leads to research results that cannot be achieved within one research discipline [50,51]. The most important issue from the perspective of the considerations undertaken here is to indicate the originality of the contribution of human geography in solving key practical tasks. The traditional scientific role of geography consists primarily in the spatial inventory, identification of regularities in the features of objects and spatial relations. The result is usually conclusions that explain the spatial organisation of society and the economy. The focus of contemporary human geography on the analysis of processes in a spatial context, rather than on the analysis of space itself, brought the cognitive goals of the discipline closer to other social sciences. In this regard, it is more important to explain the social organisation of space and link it to such categories of practical activities as management, marketing or development policy [52]. Therefore, generalisations are more important than the creation of explanatory theories with a large load of scientific abstractions. Especially given that the case study method, in which many disciplines can demonstrate their leading competences, is very successful [53]. Following such a path of scientific development by geographers requires a good knowledge of the achievements of other disciplines. This issue also applies to other areas of knowledge about society. The subject of joint research becomes more transdisciplinary than interdisciplinary, which is reflected in the growing importance of the factual component and the practical function of research [26].

3.2. Spatial Justice, Livelihoods and Energy Issue

Energy issues as a specialised part of the disciplines of social sciences is certainly a topic that is very conducive to undertaking transdisciplinary research. The essential aspect here is to bring closer those issues in which geographical (spatial) knowledge is of great importance for explaining the social and economic reality [54]. In recent years, the issue of spatial justice has been widely discussed in the policy of the European Union and many other countries that recognise the importance of social and bottom-up development factors [55]. It has many dimensions, but it primarily touches upon issues such as quality of life, livelihoods and accessibility to public services. Against the background of the events that have taken place in recent months in connection with the situation in Eastern Europe, the concept of spatial justice has a new clear context [56,57]. This context is related to energy security and securing the existence of people in the conditions of new threats [58]. The menaces related to the inability to produce energy at the current level, shortages in the supply of raw materials, an increase in energy prices and an increase in the prices of manufactured products and services create a sense of threat to households. The level of quality of life achieved in the societies of highly developed countries as well as expectations regarding its increase in the coming years in countries experiencing rapid economic growth have been verified in the face of the energy crisis [59]. From the point of view of scientific research, this opens up new perspectives concerning not only the international scale (e.g., climate), but above all the local scale (places) where new strategies and models of behaviour must be defined. In many places, this creates a tension between the sustainable development policy as well as the Green Deal and the possibilities of local communities facing a large increase in the cost of living, with energy costs becoming a factor in creating social inequalities [60]. Therefore, in the new research model, which takes into account geographical values based primarily on noticing the diversity of space as well as specific conditions and resources of development, the concept of locality plays an important role. Place is crucial for the search for local solutions in relation to the outside world. The authors take into account good practices related to the implementation of the project entitled "Resituating the local in cohesion and territorial development (RELOCAL)”, which adopts a relational approach, analysing the locality from a critical perspective through four interrelated dimensions: differential, vertical, horizontal and transversal [61]. The growing importance of the energy security factor in livelihoods puts the issues of social and economic shaping of localities in a new light [57].

The differential dimension refers primarily to the issue of energy poverty (extreme energy exclusion). The analysis of the conditions and mechanisms leading to energy poverty is based on the understanding of space as inequality and injustice within any given territory. The inner diversity of space requires a very individual approach to places. Place-based policy in this area must take into account the possibility of adapting to changing environmental conditions and responding in a socially adjusted way in a given place. An important role here is played by the analysis of resources and environmental values for the use of the territory as an energy base [62].

The vertical dimension is associated with a strong focus on the issue of scale and thus the issue of territory development and land use. In the context of energy security, this dimension is related to the study of the degree and model of management that can minimise threats to democracy, including local threats. Local management of the energy sector has a significant relationship with planning the development of the territory, especially in local spatial management. Determining areas and facilities predisposed to obtain energy from distributed installations and analysing production possibilities is currently one of the key tasks to achieve spatial justice in the energy dimension [63].

The horizontal dimension touches upon the issue of locations and flows, which are very important for different localities due to the national and transnational (e.g., the EU) pursuit to achieve social and territorial cohesion. Cooperation between units at different levels of administrative management eliminates the threats resulting from crisis situations. Solidarity in the field of energy is based on help with filling gaps and dealing with emergency situations. Geographical analysis of flows in this area can show the differences between everyday situations (correctness in the functioning of energy systems at various levels) and crisis situations. The latter should be treated as a specific type of test for connections in the horizontal dimension [64].

The transversal dimension is the most challenging research issue for the social sciences, which must consider cross-sectional horizontal and vertical systems. It is a relational spatial interpretation that goes beyond the dichotomy of vertical and horizontal relationships, taking into account the dynamics resulting from social, cultural and spatial heterogeneity. On a local scale, this analysis takes into consideration the functioning of formal and informal networks and the activities of change agents, leaders, organisations and institutions. This dimension is within the scope of the relational space and takes into account the sphere of social imaginations, thus encompassing the colloquial context of the energy crisis. The social perception of processes and what is happening in the formal plane is a negotiable space, which makes it labile. It also covers the issues of creating space as a result of the clash of different narratives and behaviours. Social and spatial conflicts are part of local politics, and thus the issues of ensuring energy security are woven into the relations of authorities, stakeholders, pressure groups, etc. [65].

Research practice on localities shows that the contemporary analysis of various phenomena is difficult to divide into traditional categories—economic, social, cultural and political. Collaboration between scientific disciplines, including geographic analysis, must rather relate to perspectives on the research issues being addressed. Hence, the geographies of energy should analyse the contemporary transition in this area from the viewpoint of scale and relativity of the relationship resulting from the above-presented dimensions: differential, vertical, horizontal and transversal [47].