A Novel Analysis of Energy Density Considerations and Its Impacts on the Cost of Electrical Energy Storage (EES) Plants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Contribution of the Work
3. Problem Definition
4. Low-Pressure Liquid Air Storage
5. Materials and Methodology
- The air is real and dry;
- The efficiency of turbomachinery is constant in off-design and design conditions [39];
- The ambient and source pressure and temperature are 101 kPa and 20 °C, respectively;
- The pressure loss of piping is negligible;
- The air leakage from the UG storage is negligible [40];
- The heat losses and air leakage from the AG storage are considered in the LAS capacity calculation;
- The isentropic efficiency of rotary equipment is considered fixed in the current evaluation’s thermodynamic range;
- The time of charging and discharging is 8 and 2 h, respectively;
6. Validation
7. Techno-Economic Calculations
7.1. Tank Working Capacity
7.2. Extra Volume Due to Dead Zone
7.2.1. Highest Liquid Level
7.2.2. Lowest Liquid Level
Submergence Length
NPSH
7.3. Extra Volume Due to Heat Leakage
7.3.1. Passive Refrigerated System
7.3.2. Active Refrigeration
7.4. Total Capacity
7.5. Plant Energy Density
7.6. Cryogenic Tank Cost
8. Result and Discussion
8.1. LAS Capacity
8.2. Energy Density
8.3. Cost of LAS
9. Conclusions
- Based on the Huntorf plant properties, an LAES plant integrated with combustion was simulated and investigated from the discharging viewpoint. Calculations revealed that the volume of LAS required when substituting with CAS was 5482 cubic meters. Accordingly, when purchasing the appropriate storage capacity, based on the market availability and recommended dimensions, a 6000 m3 tank is selectable. Moreover, comparative assessments indicated that the space required to store energy carriers and cold TES substances is reduced by about 35 times to that of CAES.
- The comparison of the current approach with an adiabatic LAES plant was implemented to discover the misconceptions in the employment of equations that only contain purchasing terms. Results displayed that the share of LAS cost in the total economic study became more than six times larger than what was obtained in the forenamed work. The significant error was mainly due to the single-aspect cost equation and failure to assume the required capacity for heat leakage and dead zones.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Acronyms | Symbols | Subscript | |||
API | American Petroleum Institute | A | Area, m2 | 0 | Zero Seconds |
ASME | American Society of Mechanical Engineers | D | Diameter, m | A | Acceleration |
CAES | Compressed Air Energy Storage | F | Installation Condition Factor | C | Compressor |
CAS | Compressed Air Storage | H | Head, m | C | Sloshing Mode Due to Natural Period |
CC | Combustion Chamber | I | Irreversibility, kJ/kg | D | Diameter |
CT | Cryogenic Tank | L | Length, m | El | Electricity |
EES | Electrical Energy Storage | Mass Flow Rate, kg/s | I | Inlet | |
HLL | Highest Liquid Level | N | Number | L | Long Period |
HP | High Pressure | P | Pressure, kPa | L | Long Period Earth Movement |
LAES | Liquid Air Energy Storage | R | Radius, m | Max | Maximum |
LAS | Liquid Air Storage | S | Spectral Response, m/s2 | Min | Minimum |
LLL | Lowest Liquid Level | T | Temperature | O | Outlet |
LP | Low Pressure | V | Volume, m3 | P | Pump |
NPSH | Net Positive Suction Head | W | Work, kJ | S | Isentropic |
PE | Purchased Equipment | Work Input Rate, kW | S | Short Period | |
PHES | Pumped Hydro Energy Storage | Z | Compressibility Factor | T | Turbine |
PTES | Pumped Thermal Energy Storage | Ρ | Density, kg/m3 | Th | Thermal |
Pur | Purchased | v | Velocity | ||
RTE | Round Trip Efficiency | Greek Letters | V | Volume | |
TES | Thermal Energy Storage | η | Isentropic Efficiency | ||
TRL | Technology Readiness Level | δ | Height of the Sloshing Wave | ||
USGS | United States Geological Survey |
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Main Applications | Examples | Power (MW) | Response Time | Discharging Time Scale |
---|---|---|---|---|
Power Quality & Regulation | Smoothing, Voltage Control, Dynamic Responses, Oscillation Damping | <1 MW | Milliseconds | Milliseconds to a few Seconds |
Bridging Power | Spinning Reserve, Ramping, Emergency backup, Medium Scale Smoothing | <100 kW <100 MW | Few seconds to Few Minutes | Up to 12 h |
Energy Management | Peak Shaving, Time shifting, Energy Arbitrage, Line Repair, Large Scale Smoothing | <30 MW <1 GW | Minutes to a Few Hours | Up to Several Weeks |
EES Scale | Power Magnitude | Storage Duration | Application |
---|---|---|---|
Large-scale | >100 MW | Hours to days | Energy Management, Seasonal energy management, Unit commitment |
Medium-scale | <100 MW >10 MW | Minutes to a day | Bridging power, Unit commitment, Load following, Peak shaving |
Small-scale | <10 MW | Seconds to minutes | Load following, Uninterrupted power supply integration, Power backup, Power quality and regulation |
Parameters | Current Simulation | Ref. Value | Error | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Discharging power (kW) | 315 | 315.28 | 0.08% | Jafarizadeh et al. [41] |
CAS Volume (m3) | 304,894 | 310,000 | 2% | Jafarizadeh et al. [41] |
LAS Volume (m3) | 681 | 667.1 | 2% | Nabat et al. [39] |
50 | 36.57 | 1113 | 459.3 | 91.95 | 419.6 | 2084 | 1.87 | 4.54 | 22.66 | 4.97 |
100 | 73.141 | 1113 | 459.3 | 117.1 | 839.2 | 2529 | 2.27 | 5.51 | 21.60 | 3.01 |
150 | 109.711 | 1113 | 459.3 | 142.3 | 1259 | 2973 | 2.67 | 6.47 | 20.89 | 2.36 |
200 | 146.282 | 1113 | 459.3 | 167.5 | 1678 | 3418 | 3.07 | 7.44 | 20.41 | 2.04 |
250 | 182.852 | 1113 | 459.3 | 192.7 | 2098 | 3863 | 3.47 | 8.41 | 20.05 | 1.84 |
300 | 219.423 | 1113 | 459.3 | 217.8 | 2518 | 4308 | 3.87 | 9.38 | 19.78 | 1.71 |
350 | 255.993 | 1113 | 459.3 | 243 | 2937 | 4753 | 4.27 | 10.35 | 19.56 | 1.62 |
400 | 292.563 | 1113 | 459.3 | 268.2 | 3357 | 5197 | 4.67 | 11.32 | 19.38 | 1.55 |
432 a | 315.969 | 1113 | 459.3 | 284.3 | 3625 | 5482 | 4.93 | 11.94 | 19.28 | 1.51 |
500 | 365.704 | 1113 | 459.3 | 318.5 | 4196 | 6087 | 5.47 | 13.25 | 19.11 | 1.45 |
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Jafarizadeh, H.; Soltani, M.; Nathwani, J. A Novel Analysis of Energy Density Considerations and Its Impacts on the Cost of Electrical Energy Storage (EES) Plants. Energies 2023, 16, 3330. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083330
Jafarizadeh H, Soltani M, Nathwani J. A Novel Analysis of Energy Density Considerations and Its Impacts on the Cost of Electrical Energy Storage (EES) Plants. Energies. 2023; 16(8):3330. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083330
Chicago/Turabian StyleJafarizadeh, Heidar, Madjid Soltani, and Jatin Nathwani. 2023. "A Novel Analysis of Energy Density Considerations and Its Impacts on the Cost of Electrical Energy Storage (EES) Plants" Energies 16, no. 8: 3330. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083330