Influence of Wind Turbines as Dominants in the Landscape on the Acceptance of the Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland

Abstract

Where there are wind turbines, they become a dominant feature of the landscape. The landscape is one of the frequently identified types of impacts of these investments on the natural environment and people. Specially prepared methodologies are used to assess the impact of turbines on the landscape. No less important is the subjective feeling of residents because it can affect the social acceptance of these investments. The work answers questions about residents’ opinions on the impact of energy installations on the landscape. The results of the study, using chi-square, indicate that there is a relationship between the presence of windmills in the municipality and support for their development, as well as the evaluation of both the positive as well as the negative. Residents of a municipality where wind turbines have been around for more than a dozen years considered the introduction of a very strong visual stimulus as the most important negative impact on the landscape. Residents of a municipality without wind power considered interference with ecosystems as the most important negative impact.

1. Introduction

In 2000, the European Landscape Convention (hereinafter referred to as the Convention) was drawn up in Florence. It is the first international act entirely dedicated to the subject of landscape. Its purpose is to promote the protection, management, and planning of landscapes and to organize European cooperation in this field. Parties to the Convention, accepting its objectives, are obliged to take general and special measures for the protection, planning, and management of landscapes. General measures include the legal recognition of the landscape as an important component of the human environment, the establishment and implementation of a landscape policy, the preparation of procedures for public participation in the creation of this policy, and the consideration of landscape issues in all other policies that directly or indirectly affect the landscape [1]. Badora [2] synthesizing various ways of defining landscape [3,4,5,6,7] indicates that it can be identified with a slice of geographic space, characterized by a specific structure of natural and cultural elements, remaining in functional relationships with each other. In the European Landscape Convention, “landscape means an area, perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors” [1]. Degórski et al. [8] recognize the complexity of this seemingly simple definition. They point out that a landscape understood according to this definition is primarily a spatial object. Space, on the other hand, is subject to constant change as a result of human activities. “Space becomes synonymous with that slice of the Universe that constitutes our environment, usually the closest one, and has a special meaning for us for some reason, often an emotional one” [9]. In the geographic dictionary [10], the author writes that a landscape is “the totality of phenomena of a specific place on the Earth’s surface, along with the subjectively attributed characteristics to the term place, making up the stereotypes that exist in the public consciousness”. The convention refers to all landscapes and points out that the basis of democracy is the right of everyone to live in an environment of good quality. It is mainly about public participation in all spatial management activities. Article 6 of the Convention states that an important element of landscape protection activities is raising awareness among the public and others of the value of landscapes, their role, and the changes made to them. Therefore, the public’s assessment cannot be overlooked for an investment with such a large impact on the perception of observance and perception of the landscape [11]. Wind turbines in the landscape, such as areas in the municipalities studied, are undoubtedly landscape-dominant. A dominant object has the greatest range of visual impact in the surrounding space, with a strong form that integrates the composition, distinguished by its height, dimensions, color, material, texture, or richness of detail. In the context of the topic undertaken [2], it should be noted that the impact of wind power plants on the landscape is one of the frequently identified types of impacts of these investments on the natural environment and people [12,13,14,15]. The authors are aware that the assessment of the impact of investments on the landscape requires methodical studies, which is a legal requirement and is taking place [16].

The most important fuel for electricity generation in Poland is still coal: hard coal (43%) and lignite (26%). However, the past decade has seen a decline in their share (from 48% to 34%), primarily in favor of renewable energy sources (RES) (from 12% to 27%) [17,18].

The structure of obtaining energy from RES depends primarily on country-specific geographical conditions: “The sun does not always and everywhere shine and the wind does not always blow” [19]. In 2021, for example, Ireland had the highest share of wind power generation in the EU-27, at 56 percent, with Poland at 10.9 percent [20].

The development of wind power in Poland is marked by numerous barriers: legal, economic, technological, and organizational [21]. However, Poland, as a member state of the European Union, is obliged to move away from fossil fuels and toward other energy carriers. By 2030, the share of RES use in the Polish economy should be 31.5% [22].

The question that arises, however, is whether the residents of the two municipalities accept the development of RES, including wind power. One also wonders whether residents of the neighboring municipality, where there are no windmills yet but conditions are favorable for their construction, perceive the impact of wind turbines on the landscape in a similar way.

1.1. Public Acceptance of RES

The space has a public character, as a result of which there are numerous actors in its area, each of whom may have their own vision of its appearance or the functions it performs. The diversity of these visions and the lack of consensus is a source of conflict [23]. Spatial conflicts may arise from conflicting interests represented by different parties. Among the actors pursuing their interests in space, there are several basic groups: social stakeholders (residents, space regulars, and space users), property owners, local authorities, investors, and designers [24]. Each of these stakeholders has a different goal, is guided by different criteria, and can influence the formation of space to varying degrees. All investments, therefore, require public approval. This is because without it, the investment will not be implemented or its implementation will cause conflicts.

Currently, public acceptance is seen as a barrier to the development of renewable energy sources, including wind power [25]. For further reading on social acceptance in the establishment of wind power plants, see [26,27,28,29].

Bednarek-Szczepanska [30] analyzed 321 articles from 19 regional media titles, which led to the conclusion that wind energy is most often portrayed as a source of locational conflict. Although wind energy is very popular, it has just as many opponents. This is not just a problem affecting Poland alone [31,32,33].

Surveys indicate that the public knows what RES are and supports their development, but the degree of support decreases as the distance of investments from their place of residence decreases. In the case of wind turbines, this phenomenon has been studied by, among others, Witkowska-Dąbrowska et al. [28], Skiniti et al. [34], Devine-Wright [35], Carley et al. [36], Wolsink [29], and Wassmer and Wahid [37]. It is called NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) in the literature. Although academic research has increasingly dismissed NIMBYism as a useful approach to understanding why the public opposes certain investments [38,39], the discourse still has a strong presence in public debate [40,41,42].

NIMBY is a pejorative phenomenon that indicates human irrationality in the implementation of development projects by perceiving them as dangerous, disruptive, or unattractive [43]. Due to the complex nature of the NIMBY syndrome, the reasons for its occurrence should be analyzed each time [44]. The importance of the NIMBY syndrome has been pointed out by many authors, among whose works one can find ways to quantify this phenomenon [45] or to explain its mechanism [46].

Disapproval of developments in a given location means collective opposition when they are attempted [47,48]. This means that the occurrence of the NIMBY syndrome brings with it the emergence of spatial conflicts [49,50]. Depending on the NIMBY facilities, public acceptance of them varies [51]. However, the need to meet energy goals and the need to move away from fossil fuels is increasing support for wind power, despite the fact that it is considered harmful to the landscape [52].

1.2. Impact of Wind Turbines on the Landscape

The impact of wind turbines on the local community can be classified into several groups: on health and well-being, on the quality of the living environment of residents, on economic, socio–demographic, institutional–political, natural environment, and energy security. Among the impacts on the quality of the living environment of local residents, in addition to noise, light effects, radiation, or risk of accidents, the impact on the landscape and aesthetic qualities is mentioned [30,53].

In the debate about wind power, especially onshore wind power, one can see the particular scale of its impact on the landscape. No other issue related to the location of wind farms is so thoroughly argued as that of the landscape. Indeed, it is considered one of the most important resources—both environmental and socio–economic. The establishment of RES installations is the most common cause of spatial conflicts, and among them wind farms are the most common. In both Saxony [32], Denmark [54], Sweden [55], and Austria [56], the issue of the negative impact of turbines on the landscape was one of the most common arguments against their construction. One can encounter approaches downplaying the issue of the impact of wind farms on the landscape. One municipality in Poland summed up the issue this way: “the argument that someone’s windmill will spoil the view is not an argument for me” [57] per [30]. Thus, it should be emphasized that the visual perception of wind turbines is purely subjective in nature [58]. Nevertheless, the impact of wind turbines on the landscape and the attractiveness of an area is cited as one of the reasons for public disapproval of this type of investment [59]. As early as a quarter of a century ago, it was noted that the visual impact of wind turbines is the most common argument that the local community mentions against them [60]. Wolsink [61], Devine-Wright [35], and Pellegrini-Masini [62] pointed out that visual impact is a key issue explaining the lack of public acceptance. Economic practice indicates a high level of public participation in environmental, landscape, and spatial management [63].

According to Polish law, wind power plants can be located only in rural and marine areas. Introduced into the landscape, they become its compositional dominants [64]. Their visibility range is, depending on weather conditions, from 5 to 15 km [65]. “Windmills are a fundamental interference in the landscape (leaving aside the assessment of whether such a change is positive or negative), as they are its dominant feature over a large area” [24]. One can find numerous studies discussing the impact of wind turbines on the landscape. Warren et al. [66] pointed out that windmills represent the cultural landscapes of the 21st century and cite the example of Denmark, where attempts to remove them would contribute to conflicts. Therefore, their impact on the landscape should not be judged solely negatively, and once again, the subjectivity of these assessments should be emphasized.

An important issue is the impact of wind turbines on the cultural landscape [67,68] and tourism and recreation directly related to the landscape issue [69].

The changes taking place in the space indicated little public awareness of landscape values. The prepared environmental impact assessments often downplayed the assessment of landscape impacts, and as was rightly noted and emphasized as early as the middle of the last century, “Good management is the basis for a harmonious landscape, bad—a devastated one” [70]. The “Recommendations for Considering the Impact of Wind Farms on the Landscape in Environmental Impact Procedures” [16] provides methodological guidelines for assessing the impact of wind power projects on the landscape, thus emphasizing the growing awareness, first, of the changes occurring in the landscape due to wind power development, and second, of the need to monitor their scale. Energy development will become a major factor in landscape change in the current century [71].

In the early years of wind energy development in Poland, the emergence of wind farms was considered an element that enhanced the surrounding values. It was only later that they began to be seen as elements that distorted the landscape [70]. Bielecki and Jusinska [72], studying the impact of wind energy on the natural environment, divided the study sample into three groups: (1) those living near a wind farm, (2) those living near the site where the wind farm is to be built, (3) those living in an area without wind turbines. In Group 1, the primary effect of wind turbines was landscape changes. The significance of this aspect decreased in subsequent groups of respondents. The literature notes that public acceptance of wind turbines vis-à-vis their impact on the landscape is based primarily on their number, distance, and aesthetics [73,74].

2. Materials and Methods

The aim of the study was to identify how, under the influence of the visual presence of wind turbines, the view of their impact on the landscape changes and whether this affects public acceptance of the investment.

The study covered the municipalities of Korsze, located in Kętrzyn County, and Bisztynek, located in Bartoszyce County. Both are in the Warmian–Masurian province and are adjacent to each other.

The Korsze wind farm is located near the town of Korsze in northeastern Poland. The farm is owned by the Spanish company EDPRenovaveis S/A (Renewables). The farm is the company’s third largest farm operating in Poland in terms of installed capacity (70 MW) [75]. The municipality of Korsze is a leader in renewable energy in the region, with large wind farms operating on its territory. A new wind farm was completed in 2020. It includes 15 new facilities [76]. According to information from the Municipality Office in Korsze, there are 51 wind farms in the municipality. All wind power plants are connected to ENERGA OPERATOR S.A. [77].

The choice of the Kosze municipality was a product of many aspects. Firstly, it is located in a zone very favorable for the location of wind turbines. The result of many years of meteorological research is the development of a map showing the intensity and magnitude of wind currents in Poland. The country’s area was divided into five zones that differ in terms of attractiveness for locating wind energy. The two studied municipalities are located in Zone II, which is very favorable (marked with white points on the map) (Figure 1).

Secondly, the wind farm is constantly evolving—the first turbines were erected in 2011, and after 9 years, new ones were put up. The landscape is, therefore, being modified continuously. Thirdly, both the number of windmills and the installed capacity take average values among wind power plants in Poland, so it does not take limit values that could lead to false conclusions. In Poland, there are wind power plants consisting of a larger number of turbines (e.g., Potęgowo Wind Farm: 81 turbines) or with a smaller number of turbines but more power, therefore generating at least more noise (e.g., Lotnisko Wind Farm: 30 turbines, 94.50 MW) [80]. Fourthly, the share of the population by economic age groups in Poland and in the rural area of the Korsze municipality is very similar: the population of pre-working age is about 18%, working age 60%, and post-working age 20% [81].

After deciding which municipality with wind energy investments in their area would be included in the study, the search began for a neighboring municipality characterized by similar landscape and demographic features, with no wind turbines to date. The municipality of Bisztynek was decided on because, like the municipality of Korsze, it is an urban-rural municipality; secondly, it directly borders the municipality of Korsze. The neighborhood has a number of effects that are important in terms of the visual impact of wind turbines.

The main branch of economic development in the urban-rural municipalities of Korsze and Bisztynek is agriculture. The landscape of the Korsze municipality is flat; only in the southern part is it hilly [76]. Similarly, the landscape of the Bisztynek municipality belongs to the lowland, glacial, hilly landscape type [82]. There are few surface waters in both municipalities. The share of agricultural land in both municipalities reaches almost 80% of the area, indicating the dominance of the rural landscape.

The attractiveness of the landscape in terms of aesthetic and visual qualities is very often a clue in determining the detailed functions of an area. Rural spaces characterized by a low level of development, attractive landscape qualities, and peculiar functional characteristics are predisposed to the development of social functions [83,84,85]. However, it is also a place where certain investments can develop. Cultural landscape qualities reflecting the history, traditions, cultural resources of the space, and the way people interact with the natural system are also not insignificant. They contribute to the formation and nurturing of identity and uniqueness, both locally and regionally. They influence the expansion of leisure activities and create a friendly environment for everyday life [86].

Surveys can be used in landscape assessment and serve to indicate how particular elements of the natural and cultural landscape are perceived by the public so they can be taken into account in public opinion on investments. This statement is supported by the results of a study by Senetra [87], who analyzed whether surveys can be indicated in evaluating the landscape of rural areas. Assessment of landscape-forming elements is a reliable way to determine the strength of the influence of environmental values and anthropogenic elements on the perception of aesthetic and visual values of rural landscapes. The correctness of the methodology presented by the author is evidenced by the very high agreement of all participants taking part in the study. This concordance is expressed by high values of Kendall’s W coefficient of concordance in all proposed groups of landscape-building elements.

The survey process began with selecting the study area and preparing the questionnaire. A pilot survey was conducted in December 2023. Prior to the survey, a representative sample size was calculated. In January 2024, the survey was conducted. Of the 400 questionnaires distributed in the municipality of Korsze, 391 were returned, and of the 400 in the municipality of Bisztynek, 389 were returned. The data was then entered into a spreadsheet and analyzed to allow conclusions to be drawn.

The survey was conducted in January 2024 using a paper questionnaire consisting of 9 questions and an index. The questionnaire was distributed using the snowball method to a representative sample of residents of both municipalities. Sampling was based on the probability method or random selection. Survey research was chosen because it is one of the methods used for social research and collecting information from respondents using a standardized questionnaire. The minimum sample size [88] was calculated based on Formula (1).

$$n=\raisebox{1ex}{$N$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$1+\frac{4d^2(N-1)}{Z^2}$}\right.$$

(1)

• n—sample size
• N—population size
• Z—coefficient depending on the confidence level adopted, with a confidence level of 0.95
• d—prediction error is assumed to be ±5% (0.05)

The resulting data was entered into a spreadsheet, which allowed further analysis and conclusions.

In the municipality of Korsze, the majority of respondents were men (59%), while in the municipality of Bisztynek, women (65%). Regardless of the municipality surveyed, the structure of respondents, according to age and education, was similar. The highest percentage was represented by people aged 37–50. In the municipality of Korsze, the majority were those with higher education (36%), while in the municipality of Bisztynek, they had secondary education (41%) (

Table 1. Characteristics of respondents.

Specification		Municipality Korsze	Municipality Bisztynek
Gender	Women	41	65
	Men	59	35
Age (years)	18–25	9	9
	26–36	32	30
	37–50	32	35
	Above 50	27	26
Education	Primary/secondary	9	2
	Professional	20	20
	Secondary	34	41
	Higher	36	37

Source: own elaboration.

).

Two hypotheses were then posed:

H1: 

The presence of wind turbines in the municipality has implications for supporting their development.

H2: 

Residents of the municipality where wind turbines have been operating for several years perceive the dominant nature of the turbines as having the most negative impact on the landscape.

The study used a chi-square test of concordance to assess whether there was a statistically significant relationship between two qualitative variables. One variable was the presence of turbines in the municipal area, and the other was support for wind energy development and feelings about the dominant nature of turbines in the municipal landscape.

This made it possible to answer whether acceptance of the development of renewable energy investments depends on their presence in the municipality and whether the presence of turbines in the municipality affects their perception as negatively dominating the landscape. Chi-square was calculated according to Equation (2). This assumed a probability of 0.05. There was 1 degree of freedom in both cases.

The chi-square test (2) of independence is one of the most popular statistical tests. It is used to test whether there is a statistically significant relationship between two qualitative variables. It is based on comparing the observed counts, i.e., those obtained in the study, with the expected counts, i.e., those that the test would assume if there were no relationship between the variables. If the difference between the observed and expected counts is large (statistically significant), then one can conclude that there is a relationship between one variable and another. This test is very popular for surveys where qualitative variables predominate.

$$X^2=\sum _{j=1}^n\frac{{(O_j-E_j)}^2}{E_j}$$

(2)

where:

• X²—chi-square test
• i—number of lines
• j—number of columns
• O_ij—the actual frequency in the i-th row of the j-th column
• E_ij—the predicted frequency in the i-th row of the j-th column

3. Results

3.1. Knowledge of and Support for Wind Energy Development

Regardless of the municipality, the majority of respondents declared support for RES development (71% in the municipality of Korsze and 76% in the municipality of Bisztynek), with “strong support” declared by about ¼ of respondents each. A similar percentage also declared indifference. In the municipality of Korsze, only 2% indicated a definite lack of support, while in the municipality of Bisztynek, no one indicated this answer (Figure 2).

In the context of the research on the impact of wind energy investments on the landscape, it was analyzed how support for this type of investment is shaping up in comparison with other RES. The survey began by determining the degree of familiarity with wind energy as one of the RES used in Poland. The residents of both the Korsze and Bisztynek municipalities overwhelmingly declared familiarity with the concept of individual RES. In the Bisztynek municipality, the percentage was as high as 98%, while in the Korsze municipality, it was 89%.

In both the municipality of Korsze and the municipality of Bisztynek, 100% and 96% of respondents, respectively, declared knowledge of wind energy. Also, knowledge of solar energy was declared by a very high percentage of respondents (84% in the municipality of Korsze and 93% in the municipality of Bisztynek). The results indicate that residents of the Bisztynek municipality were more familiar with types of renewable energy. Only in the case of hydrothermal energy and hydropower did less than 50% of respondents declare familiarity. In the municipality of Korsze, only ¼ of respondents were familiar with these types; in addition, only 27% indicated familiarity with aerothermal energy, 36% with ocean currents, tides, and wave energy, and 43% with geothermal energy (Figure 3).

This confirms the assumption that renewable energy meets with public support, and most respondents are familiar with wind power investments.

The next step was to assess the support of wind energy investments in individual municipalities (Figure 4). The level of support for different types of RES varied widely. Sources for which respondents declared, in large part, that they did not know also indicated that they were indifferent in terms of support for their development.

However, analyzing opinions on the detailed location of wind energy investments (Figure 5), a decrease in support was noted with proximity to the place of residence. In the municipality of Korsze, 28% of respondents declared their lack of support for construction on a neighboring property (14% strongly), while in the municipality of Bisztynek, 41% did so (11% strongly). There is no legal definition of neighboring property in Poland. Instead, the concept of “neighboring property” is interpreted functionally and should be applied to all properties in the study area, not just those directly adjacent to the investor’s plot. However, in the study, a neighboring property is assumed to be the property that borders it or is directly adjacent to it. Regardless of the municipality, 41% of respondents would support the construction of turbines on a neighboring property (16% strongly in the municipality of Korsze, 9% in the municipality of Bisztynek). This suggests that the investment began to evoke emotions, especially negative ones, and ceased to be met with indifference among more respondents in both municipalities.

When asked about their willingness to lease their own land to build wind turbines, “yes” was indicated by more than 43% of residents of the municipality of Korsze (20% definitely). As many as 48% of residents of the municipality of Bisztynek (9% definitely) declared their willingness to lease land. It should be noted at this point that there are no wind turbines in the Bisztynek municipality, so financial compensation would alleviate resistance to wind energy investments. In contrast, the municipality of Korsze is famous for the development of wind energy investments, and there, the support for construction “on my property” is very strong. These analyses only confirm the well-known problem of the occurrence of the NIMBY syndrome in such cases.

3.2. Assessment of the Impact of Wind Energy Investments on the Landscape According to Respondents

Residents of both municipalities consider the landscape to be an important natural asset (Figure 6). The survey results indicate this, with about 80% of the respondents in each municipality indicating so. None of the respondents denied this definitively, with 7% of the residents of the municipality of Korsze and 2% of the municipality of Bisztynek not considering the landscape an important value.

More than 30% of residents in the municipality of Korsze indicated (Figure 7) that wind turbines affect the visual experience (9% definitely). In the municipality of Bisztynek, just less than 11% said there was no impact, with more than half of Bisztynek municipality residents having no opinion on the issue. Despite the fact that residents of the municipality of Korsze have a view of windmills on a daily basis, the lack of visual sensation was indicated by 39% of respondents from the municipality of Korsze (7% definitely), slightly less in the municipality of Bisztynek (37% and 2% definitely).

Interestingly, despite the fact that in the municipality of Korsze, 1/3 of respondents indicated that the turbines have an impact on the visual experience, nearly half of the respondents indicated that they have no impact on the landscape (Figure 8).

Similarly, in the municipality of Bisztynek, almost half of the respondents acknowledged the turbines’ impact on the landscape, while only one-sixth expressed positive visual sentiments about them. One-fifth of the residents of the municipality of Korsze emphasized an exclusively positive impact on the landscape (contrasting with less than 1/10 in the municipality of Bisztynek).

3.2.1. Assessment of the Importance of the Positive Effects of the Construction of Wind Turbines in the Municipalities of Korsze and Bisztynek

Both those who indicated both positive and negative at the same time and those who indicated only positive impacts of wind turbines on the landscape were asked to rank the six listed positive aspects related to the impact of wind turbines on the landscape from most important to least important (1–6).

Table 2. Importance of positive impact of wind turbines on the landscape (1: most important; 6: least important).

Positive Effects of Wind Turbine Construction	Respondents from the Group That Indicated only Positive Impacts		Respondents from the Group That Indicated Positive as well as Negative Impacts
	Korsze	Bisztynek	Korsze	Bisztynek
Landscape diversification	2	2	2	3
Raising tourist attractions	3	3	6	5
Building of positive associations with the municipality	1	5	1	6
Integration with the surrounding nature	5	1	5	4
Clean-up of the area as a result of the landscaping work	4	1	5	4
Improvement of aesthetics in areas with a disturbed landscape, e.g., mine sites, industrial areas, etc.	6	4	3	2

Source: own elaboration.

shows the ranked ratings of the positive impact of the turbines on the landscape. Only slightly more than 20% of residents of the municipality of Korsze and 7% of residents of the municipality of Bisztynek indicated a purely positive impact. According to residents of the municipality of Korsze, the most important positive effect of the presence of the power plants was the building of positive associations with the municipality, and the least important was the improvement of aesthetics in areas with a disturbed landscape. Among the 14% of residents who perceived both pluses and minuses of the presence of wind turbines, building positive associations with the municipality was also considered the most important, but raising tourist values was considered the least important aspect. This may indicate that the development of the municipality and the perception of it as attractive is not associated, in the opinion of residents, with tourism, which was supposed to be a “cure” for the economic collapse of the area after the political transformation.

Among those residents of the Bisztynek municipality who saw only positive effects of the turbines on the landscape, the clean-up of the area as a result of the landscaping work was considered the most important aspect, and integration with the surrounding nature was considered the least important. Meanwhile, this effect was rated highest by respondents seeing positive as well as negative effects. In their opinion, the least important issue was building positive associations with the municipality. Thus, it can be assumed that residents of the Bisztynek municipality, where there are no turbines yet, see such investments as an opportunity to support spatial ordering processes in their municipality. However, they are cautious about positive associations with the combination of new investments and the relatively undisturbed nature of their municipality.

3.2.2. Assessment of the Importance of the Negative Effects of the Construction of Wind Turbines in the Municipalities of Korsze and Bisztynek

Respondents were also asked to assess the negative impact of the turbines on the landscape. There were two groups of respondents in this survey: the one that indicated positive and negative impacts at the same time and the one that indicated only negative impacts of wind turbines on the landscape. They were asked to rank the six listed negative aspects (

Table 3. Importance of the negative impact of the presence of wind turbines on the landscape (1: most important; 6: least important).

Negative Effects of Wind Turbine Construction	Respondents from the Group That Indicated only Negative Impacts		Respondents from the Group That Indicated Negative as Well as Positive Impacts
	Korsze	Bisztynek	Korsze	Bisztynek
Disruption of the harmonious landscape	5	4	2	6
Introduction of a very strong visual stimulus—tall power plant structures are the dominant high-altitude component of the landscape	1	2	1	2
Overshadowing of naturally or culturally valuable landscape elements	2	5	6	3
Interference with ecosystems	3	1	4	1
Depletion of the area of natural trees and bushes	6	6	3	5
Degradation of existing natural and compositional values	4	3	5	4

Source: own elaboration.

) related to the impact of wind turbines on the landscape from most important to least important (1–6).

4. Discussion

The development of renewable energy is the basis of energy security, and the current political situation means that the development of wind energy should be a priority goal [89]. However, due to the fact that wind turbines are characterized by their above-average size, introduced into the rural landscape, they become its compositional dominants [64]. Landscape assessment is a component of many studies, including environmental impact reports [65]. The assessment uses very diverse methodologies. However, the participation of the local community and organizations is essential to ensure that wind farms are located in a way that minimally interferes with the current landscape [90].

Wind energy is the type of RES that is developing most rapidly in Poland. Regulations strictly define the distance of wind turbines from buildings, and environmental impact assessments also regulate the issue of individual locations of windmills. In Poland, although mandatory public consultations are to be conducted, they are not the decisive element in the possible location of an investment. Public surveys that take into account the opinions of the local population can contribute to changes in the law by putting pressure on decision-making bodies and political bodies. As a result, the voice of the local community will be considered in investments to minimize interference with the landscape.

As the survey indicates, familiarity with and support for the development of RES, including wind energy, was high in both surveyed municipalities. The results indicate that residents of the Bisztynek municipality were more familiar with the different types of renewable energy. In the case of wind energy, all respondents from the municipality of Korsze and almost all from the municipality of Bisztynek indicated that they were familiar with this type of energy. Similar survey results were obtained by Ryszkowska et al. [64]. They emphasized that the surveyed local community was characterized by significant knowledge of RES-related topics and a positive attitude towards wind power plants present in the local cultural landscape.

In the municipality of Bisztynek, an ambivalent or neutral attitude to the assessment of the impact of turbines on the landscape was shown by a large percentage of respondents (almost 90%). In the municipality of Korsze, where the turbines are visible, over 60% of respondents strongly assessed their impact.

The results of the chi-square test indicate the existence of a relationship between the presence of windmills in the municipality and support for their development, which confirms hypothesis H1. Although residents of the municipality of Korsze declared the highest support for wind energy (68%, 25% strongly), among the different types of energy, but as can be seen it was 12 percentage points lower than in the municipality of Bisztynek. Up to 80% of residents in the Bisztynek municipality, with 28% strongly in favor, supported the development of this type of renewable energy despite the absence of windmills in the area.

It also confirmed the H2 hypothesis that there is a correlation between the presence of turbines in the municipality and the negative assessment of the dominant character of turbines in the landscape.

The only negative impact of wind turbines on the landscape was considered by 18% of respondents from the municipality of Korsze and 7% from the municipality of Bisztynek. Residents of the municipality of Korsze considered the depletion of the area of natural trees and bushes as the least important negative impact. In contrast, the introduction of a very strong visual stimulus was considered the most important. This aspect was also considered the most important among residents of the municipality, perceiving both positive and negative impacts on the landscape. It should be noted at this point that when they were surveyed about their visual perceptions, residents of the municipality of Korsze indicated that the turbines have a strong impact on them.

In the case of the municipality of Bisztynek, this aspect was ranked second in terms of the importance of the negative impact on the landscape. However, they had not expressed strong opinions about the visual impact of wind turbines, unlike the residents of the municipality of Korsze. Therefore, it can be assumed that it was only when the emotional direction was specified that residents of the municipality, where there are no turbines so far, perceived a negative significant impact on visual feelings. However, they did not see it as a strong threat to the harmony of the landscape. At the same time, they considered interference with ecosystems as the most important impact, which only confirms their concern for nature in their surroundings, which is still a recognizable asset of the area.

The biggest problem encountered in conducting the survey was reaching respondents in rural areas. The paper form was chosen to reach as many respondents as possible, including older people who may have difficulty filling out an online questionnaire.

5. Conclusions

The environment in the 21st century is subject to numerous transformations, often accompanied by its degradation. The most common cause of it is human activity—intentional or unconscious. In addition, society is becoming more environmentally conscious. Environmental protection is becoming a priority issue, and the level of public participation is increasing. These elements contribute to the need to formulate policies implemented by individual countries or groups of countries with respect for the environment. An excellent example is the Community RED (Renewable Energy Directive), which sets the share of RES in energy generation sources. Moving away from fossil fuels to eliminate their negative impact on the environment is a socially accepted phenomenon. In addition, the public is aware that RES is an environmentally friendly alternative. The authors’ survey confirms these trends—regardless of the municipality, more than 70% of respondents support the development of RES.

The goal of the research, which was to identify how the view of the visual presence of wind turbines changes under the influence of their impact on the landscape and whether this affects the social acceptance of the investment, was achieved by answering the research questions posed in the introduction.

It should be noted that residents of both municipalities accept the need to develop RES, including wind power. Still, there is a correlation between the presence of windmills in the municipality and support for their development. Higher support is in the municipality, where there are no wind turbines. Although residents in the municipality of Korsze declared the highest support for wind energy (68%, 25% strongly), among the different types of energy, this support was 12 percentage points lower than in the municipality of Bisztynek. As many as 80% of residents in the municipality of Bisztynek (28% strongly), where there are no windmills, supported the development of this type of renewable energy. There is a correlation between the presence of turbines in the municipality and the negative assessment of the dominant character of turbines in the landscape. Only slightly more than 20% of residents in the municipality of Korsze and 7% of residents in the municipality of Bisztynek indicated a purely positive impact.

Wind energy is one of the primary sources of renewable energy. In order to obtain it, wind turbines must be built. These tall structures have moving rotors to generate energy. These elements make wind turbines dominant in the landscape. The public’s visual assessment of the space where wind turbines are located can follow four tracks: some members of the public will have a negative attitude and see only their negative impact on the landscape, some will have a positive attitude and see only their positive impact, some will be the most objective because, in addition to the pluses, they will also see the minuses of the wind turbines’ impact on the perception of the landscape. Those who feel that, in their perception, wind turbines do not affect the landscape should not be overlooked either.

It was also possible to answer the question of whether residents of a neighboring municipality, where windmills are not yet present but there are favorable conditions for their construction, similarly perceive the impact of wind turbines on the landscape. According to the survey, there is a correlation between the presence of turbines in a municipality and a negative assessment of the dominant character of the turbines in the landscape—the more negative assessment is among residents of a municipality where wind turbines are operating. Thus, the NIMBY syndrome is revealed here—the public supports the establishment of wind turbines, but not in the municipality they live in.

Measures that can be taken to minimize the negative impact of wind power plants on the landscape include making them less intrusive to ecosystems, locating them so that they do not overshadow naturally or culturally valuable landscape elements, and, above all, better their blending them into the surroundings, if only by matching their color scheme. While the aforementioned measures may be very difficult to achieve, improving the positive effects seems to be an easier measure—building positive associations with the municipality where the turbines are located should be strengthened, their positive impact on diversifying the landscape should be emphasized, or they should be used as tourist attractions. It is, therefore, necessary for the entities pursuing their goals in the space to cooperate, including, first and foremost, local authorities, investors, and residents.