Regional Interferences to Photovoltaic Development: A Polish Perspective

Abstract

The stability of energy generation is crucial for the functioning of every country. Currently, the EU policy is moving towards becoming independent of fossil energy sources, which can be replaced with sources that are not exhaustible, for example, energy from the sun. Public awareness of renewable energy is increasing. People are willing to invest in natural solutions. However, planning large photovoltaic farm projects is difficult due to complex location requirements. The study aimed to analyse the interferences/barriers to be considered when searching for a suitable location to install a photovoltaic farm. The analysis was conducted for the territory of Poland. The study used a literature and local legislation query and the Delphi method. The Delphi method identified the most important interferences from the investor’s perspective. Eleven interferences have been identified, classified into legal, spatial, technical, social, and financial groups. Several are locally determined and only exist in selected locations (e.g., technical determinants of the power grid condition, etc.). In contrast, others are unitary (e.g., concerns about the impact of PV on human health, etc.). The decision-makers are aware of the existing interferences/barriers, and the proposed administrative, legal, and technical solutions marginally mitigate barriers. System solutions are recommended, allowing an easier way to find a suitable location for a PV system.

1. Introduction

The world’s population is growing at an unprecedented rate, translating into a dramatic increase in energy demand [1]. Matching supply to growing demand is a major challenge for countries around the world. Most of the electricity produced in the world today comes from coal, oil, and gas. When burned, these fossil fuels release heat energy which is later converted into electricity, releasing into the atmosphere a lot of carbon dioxide, i.e., a greenhouse gas that contributes to the problem of global warming. It is a common view among climate researchers that greenhouse gas emissions are changing the global climate [2]. The supply of renewable energy is a solution to the emerging problems of energy shortages and excessive carbon emissions. Therefore, accelerating the development of technologies supporting the generation of renewable energy to produce heat and electricity is a key point in the global debate on energy transition [3]. There is growing interest in RES systems worldwide, both among individual households and in the public sector [4]. On a spatial scale, conventional energy generation systems are based on large, centralised units, with the result that a failure may cover a large area that is powered. Thanks to the use of RES, the energy system is becoming more stable due to the operation of smaller, spatially dispersed energy generation systems.

The contribution of RES in the field of energy supply varies depending on the country and region due to the different geographical distribution of energy-producing facilities. The acceptance of renewable sources of energy production is currently shifting from developed countries promoting renewable energy generation to developing countries, especially in Asia, including China, India, etc. [5].

2. Research Background

The European Union’s energy policy is based on: (a) diversification of energy sources from fossil fuels to nuclear and renewable energy (solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydro-electric, and tidal energy), with a focus on ensuring energy security; (b) the establishment of a well-functioning and fully integrated internal energy market with no technical or regulatory barriers; (c) improving energy efficiency, interconnecting power grids, and reducing emissions; (d) transitioning to a low-carbon economy in line with the commitments made under the Paris Agreement; (e) supporting research into low-carbon and clean energy technologies, and prioritising research and innovation to promote energy transition and increase competitiveness [6,7]. These objectives favour the development of RES. Low-carbon technologies (solar energy, wind energy, carbon dioxide capture and storage) have great potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to improving sustainable energy, creating jobs, economic growth, and reducing Europe’s dependence on external energy suppliers. Currently, the proportions in the use of traditional energy generation in European countries are at different levels. For example, in Sweden, the use of fossil fuels is estimated to be 2%, in relation to 68% of RES energy. Meanwhile, in Poland, this relationship is reversed, with 83% of produced energy still coming from fossil fuels and 17% from RES (see Figure 1) [8,9].

The interest of the public and scientists in renewable energy sources has been driven by the concern that fossil deposits have a limited volume and can be depleted. The burning of fossil fuels for heating is also a major contributor to carbon dioxide emissions, i.e., one of the causes of climate change. Despite the growing public awareness of the consequences of using fossil sources, barriers, obstacles, and objections are still being encountered in the context of building RES systems [8]. Most generally, these barriers/interferences can be divided into groups considering social reactions, administrative, technical, financial, and spatial difficulties.

2.1. Public Opinions

In general, the public recognises the necessity to invest in PV. However, the so-called “you can build but not in my neighbourhood” syndrome occurs among people [1,9]. The proposed locations for the implementation of renewable energy projects often meet opposition from citizens, political leaders, local government organisations, and in certain cases, even environmental associations [10]. Public opposition arises for a number of reasons, e.g., the impact on the rural landscape, architectural integrity, blocking of land for crop cultivation, environmental degradation, and the loss of the neighbouring property value. Investors’ concerns regarding the location of photovoltaic farms relate to the reaction of the local community to the implementation of such a project [11]. The most common argument in the debate is the impact of PV on human health and lives, poorly recognised in the literature, and comparing the effects of PV to that of asbestos. The public also points to concerns about the electromagnetic field being generated, changes to the microclimate in the vicinity of the farm, and the high risk of fires [12,13].

2.2. Staff and Technical Support

Moving away from fossil fuels to efficient sources of renewable energy requires a solid foundation in the form of a qualified workforce. There is a huge demand for qualified professionals to design, construct, operate, and maintain renewable energy generation plants. Incompetent technical specialists and the lack of training institutions prevent the building of confidence in the profitability of investing in modern energy technologies [9,14]. The shortage of trained manpower to design, finance, build, operate, and maintain RES projects is considered by many authors to be one of the major obstacles to its widespread dissemination [15].

2.3. Economy

The high initial capital required for renewable energy systems, coupled with the lack of financial institutions and investors willing to fund such projects, creates an economic barrier. Additionally, there is stiff competition from fossil fuels compared to renewable energy sources. Currently, in almost all countries, the total cost of fossil fuel includes the exploration, extraction, distribution, and use costs. The cost of environmental and social damage is rarely added despite the serious impact on health (e.g., pneumoconiosis) and the environment (surface deformation, ground subsidence, destruction of the on-ground infrastructure, changes in water relations, mining tremors, cracking of buildings, etc.). In the case of RES, compensation for damage due to changes in land development, noise, and vibrations, as well as the impact on ecosystems, is paid in the form of compensation payments to communities living in the vicinity and is immediately included in the total cost [16].

In Poland, the rapid development of photovoltaics has been observed for several years as a result of the European Union’s climate and energy policy, e.g., in Directive 2009/28/EC [17]. Poland’s most important obligation, arising from the provisions of the Directive, was to achieve in 2020 at least a 15% share of energy from renewable sources in gross final energy consumption, including at least a 10% share of renewable energy consumed in transport. Figure 2 shows the annual increase in solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity under construction and the total increase in PV production between 2014 and 2022.

The apparent upward trend in the development of PV was due to favourable determinants of the development of this energy generation mode, inter alia government subsidies, and a solar energy billing system for prosumers, the so-called net-metering. The billing system in force until the end of 2021 used a rebate mechanism to balance all the annual energy that was supplied to the grid and purchased from the grid. Prosumers producing energy in systems with a capacity of up to 10 kW could feed the energy back to the grid, while the billing involved receiving 0.8 units of energy for free per unit of energy (in systems with a capacity of more than 10 kW, this relationship was at a level of 0.7). Prosumers did not pay distribution charges for using the grid either. Another incentive to set up systems was the additional support from dedicated government programmes. The massive increase in the number of microsystems has highlighted serious barriers resulting from the condition of power grids in Poland. This resulted in changes in the policy for the PV energy billing sector. After 1 April 2022, the existing billing method was replaced by a new system of the so-called net-billing. Under this billing method, the amount of electricity delivered to and drawn from the grid is balanced on an hourly basis using a metering system. Prosumers bill the energy fed into the grid at the wholesale price (the previous month’s exchange energy price) and pay for the consumed energy just like other electricity consumers. The new balancing system has limited prosumer investments in microsystems, increased the return-on-investment period (previously lasting from 8 to 10 years), and, in certain cases, resulted in a lack of profitability, which was the direct cause of the slowdown in the construction of PV microsystems in Poland.

The level of development of commercial and industrial systems has not changed. The large-scale PV energy generation sector in Poland is currently supported by national tenders. Auctions are held at least once a year by the Energy Regulatory Office (a governmental administration authority for the regulation of fuel and energy economy). The auction system ensures the competitiveness of auction entrants, which translates into favourable electricity prices and the search for cost-effective energy sources [18]. Currently, the auctions are covered by a support scheme for entrepreneurs planning to invest in RES, with this support intended to be maintained for 15 years.

2.4. Funding

The limited number of government subsidies in Poland for the implementation of large and smaller PV projects can also be counted as a barrier/interference to the development of RES [19,20]. Banks are reluctant to grant loans for large PV projects, while the long return-on-investment period effectively discourages investors.

2.5. Technical Condition of the Existing Energy Infrastructure

The development of RES farms is constrained by the type and condition of the existing infrastructure. Renewable energy generation plants are usually located in remote locations, thus requiring the construction of additional transmission lines to be connected to the main power grid. The condition of the existing grids requires upgrading [21], a commitment of time and finance.

The condition of the electricity infrastructure is demonstrated by the fact that many photovoltaic systems are currently being shut down at the time of peak production, as power grids are not able to absorb such a large amount of produced energy. The development of photovoltaics, without the simultaneous modernisation of the transmission system, is ineffective and may face resistance from national power system operators and the blocking of the integration of new farms into the system. Photovoltaics are also a source described as unpredictable, which, with its considerable share in the entire energy production system, results in a growing threat related to grid stability. The energy produced is not able to balance supply and demand due to its variability in intensity caused by seasonal changes, differences in daytime and nighttime solar insolation, and weather factors such as windless days and cloudy skies. A solution to the problem is energy storage facilities to store the stock of produced energy and use it when renewable resources are not available [22]. However, these are still not sufficiently widespread, with their price-increasing initial investment costs.

PV is a new technology, and the culture of operation and maintenance (washing, snow removal from panels, etc.) is poorly developed, and the relevant knowledge is lacking. The best system performance will not be achieved without regular maintenance [5]. Moreover, the unavailability of equipment, components, and spare parts increases production costs, as they have to be imported. They are most often acquired at high prices and thus increase the overall system operation costs [23].

2.6. Information

The lack of high-quality information on PV technologies, the equipment used, the profitability of investment, possible government support [24,25,26], and the effect on property value also represent a barrier.

Incomplete information obtained from companies specialising in the sales of PV due to insufficient staff training hinders the building of PV potential [27]. What is more, poor information on the development of the state energy policy results in poor public mobilisation. In the face of current policies and climate change, PV energy production will have an impact on the entire economic environment as well as on property prices in the future [28].

2.7. Surfaces—Not Only Natural

Making a significant contribution to global energy consumption necessitates the large-scale development of renewable power plants, but this requires vast areas of the country. Photovoltaic farms need a large land area [29], much larger than that for producing energy in a small coal-fired power plant [30]. The construction of PV farms contributes to the loss of other/alternative income in agricultural farms [31]. Agricultural land must be converted into energy-producing land, buildings, roads, impact zones, and other infrastructure to support and accompany PV. This objective is achieved at the expense of other areas of the economy such as agriculture, tourism, fisheries, etc. [32].

PV farms should be built in locations with an adequate number of cloudless days, solar insolation, temperature, slope, size and shape of the plot, access to roads, access to a grid with appropriate technical parameters, and distance from protected areas [33], preferably on soils that are the weakest in utility or market terms. Due to all these requirements, not every site is suitable for the construction of an RES farm.

Accelerating the development of the PV sector requires the liberalisation of administrative and legal provisions.

The following research hypotheses emerged in the study: (a) there exists an infinite set of interferences inhibiting the development of solar energy use; (b) identifying and diagnosing the most important interferences opens the path to the search for tools to solve them; (c) the analysis of selected practices and models used in European countries can support the selection of an optimal solution adequate to local conditions.

The analysis was conducted based on a query of the literature, local legislation, and the Delphi method. The Delphi method identified the most important interferences from the investor’s perspective.

The article comprises the following sections: The introduction highlights the directions of the EU’s policy on renewable energy sources and photovoltaics, including in Poland. The most common interferences mentioned in the world literature are then identified. The research part includes highlighting the interferences/barriers occurring locally in Poland. The Discussion and Summary point out implications for change to maintain the pace of PV development.

3. Materials and Methods

Studies on the impact of barriers in the development of PV farms have been the subject of numerous scientific contributions [9,10,11,12,13,15,16,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. Researchers have focused, for instance, on the identification of barriers, the assessment of spatial attributes—important for the location of a PV farm, and the evaluation of the importance of each attribute using different methods for example Delphi methods and the fuzzy AHP-TOPSIS method [34] or the DEMATEL-ISM method [35].

The study conducted in the article was structured into four stages. In the initial phase, the most common interferences found in the world literature were analysed. In the next phase, an analysis of the Polish literature and legislation was conducted (see Figure 3), supported by discussions with experts involved in PV farm locations (Delphi method), to identify the most important problems/barriers/difficulties identified by the local community and investors.

The third phase involved assessing the importance of the identified barriers in the expert’s characterisation for the development of photovoltaic farms. For this task, a weighting method (1) and (2) and correlation analysis were applied (3).

$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{a}_{11}& a_{12}& a_{1n}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}& a_{2n}\\ a_{i1}& a_{i2}& a_{in}\end{array}\right]$$

(1)

where:

• A—matrix of the opinion of the expert;
• $a_{in}$—importance of the barrier in the expert’s opinion.

$$W_A=\left(\frac{{\sum }_n^i{a}_{1n}+a_{2n}+\cdots +a_{in}}{a_{in}}\right)\ast 100$$

(2)

$W_A$—single attribute weight (barrier).

$$r_{xy}=\frac{{\sum }_i^n\left(x_i-\overline{x}\right)\left(y_i-\overline{y}\right)}{\sqrt{{\sum }_i^n{\left(x_i-\overline{x}\right)}^2}{\sum }_i^n{\left(y_i-\overline{y}\right)}^2}=\frac{cov\left(X,Y\right)}{s_x{s}_y}$$

(3)

$r_{xy}$—correlation coefficient.

Ten (10) experts participated in the Delphi survey. The task of each expert included a rating of the importance of each characteristic describing a barrier/interference, on a scale of 1–10. The experts rated the importance of barriers in the context of their professional experience related to the search for relevant locations for the construction of a PV farm. The basic parameters of the experts’ ratings are provided in

Table 1. Parameters of barriers.

Symbol of Barrier	Aver.	Median	Min.	Max.	Sdev	C of Var
I1	3.7	4.0	2.0	5.0	0.9	25.6
I2	6.7	6.5	5.0	8.0	1.1	15.8
I3	8.3	8.5	6.0	10.0	1.6	18.8
I4	4.3	4.0	3.0	5.0	0.7	15.7
I5	4.7	5.0	3.0	6.0	0.8	17.5
I6	3.5	3.5	2.0	6.0	1.2	33.6
I7	9.1	9.5	7.0	10.0	1.1	12.1
I8	2.7	3.0	1.0	4.0	0.9	35.1
I9	2.3	2.0	1.0	4.0	0.9	41.2
I10	4.3	4.0	3.0	6.0	1.2	26.9
I11	5.1	5.0	4.0	7.0	1.0	19.5

. Calculations were performed using the licensed program Statistica v.13.3.

The fourth phase of the research comprised systematising the identified problems in respect of similarity with issues occurring in the global literature. The analysis of individual barriers was supported by simulations (volume of PV electricity produced in a selected latitude based on historical data) and comparative analyses. The discussion section presents selected practices applied in European countries and recommends solutions that have been appropriate in Polish conditions (phase four).

In some parts of the research, the simulation method was employed in the comparative part of electricity production from PV systems in Poland and other selected EU countries, with fixed initial conditions (system size, inclination angle, losses, module type, etc.) and variable geographical location, using the PVGIS application ver. 5.2 [36].

The simulations have been performed using the PVGIS ver. 5.2 application, which estimates the annual/monthly electricity production from PV installations located in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Germany, the Czech Republic, France, Austria, Italy, and Spain. Table 1 shows the database parameters used to estimate the amount of energy production from PV electricity installations. The input data in the PVGIS-SARAH2 database come from measurements made by the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecast (acr. ECMWF). The dataset has global coverage with a resolution of approximately 30 km and includes global and direct solar irradiance (see

Table 2. Basic parameters of the database (PVGIS-SARAH2) based on which photovoltaic electricity production volumes were simulated.

Database	Type	Start Year	End Year	Spatial Res.
PVGIS-SARAH2	Satellite	2005	2020	~5 km

).

The database provided for the simulations requires assumptions to be included regarding installation size, geographical location, including consideration of information about the local horizon to estimate the effects of shadows from nearby hills or mountains. The results of the calculations of the energy produced by the PV installation, at the location studied, are the average monthly and average annual energy production. The database used considered irradiance variability. The hourly irradiance values included in the PVGIS-SARAH2 dataset were extracted from the analysis of images from geostationary European satellites (Meteosat Prime, Meteosat Eastern) [36]. Satellite images of varying resolution (the highest was about 4 km) were provided to build the database. Hourly values from the satellites provided were validated against ground-based measurements from a selected set of Baseline Surface Radiation Network ground stations. The input data used for the simulations were the same (see

Table 3. Baseline assumptions (input data) for the analysed photovoltaic installation in the analysed countries.

Permanent Input Parameters for the Countries Analysed
Solar radiation database	PVGIS-SARAH2
PV technology	Crystal silicon
Installed peak PV power [kWh]	1
System loss [%]	14
Mounting position	Free-standing
Slope [degree]	35
Azimuth angle [degree]	0

). The results of the simulations and comparative analyses are presented in the Results section.

4. Results

According to the experts, the most important barrier preventing the development of PV farms is the condition of the energy infrastructure (I7) in Poland—weighting of 16.6. The second most important barrier is the impact of the absence of inclusion in spatial development plans (I3) of areas where local authorities would see opportunities for the development of PV installations. The third most important barrier (weight 12.2) is the unregulated state of land ownership. The remaining barriers are important in the opinion of the experts, but their weight is much lower than those listed above (see Figure 4).

The correlation matrix indicated a high negative correlation between the variables and the state of the infrastructure (I7), the economic aspect of the investment (high PV investment costs—I8), and the variable/barrier in the way PV farms are taxed (I9) with the impact of public opinion on PV projects (I10). The results are presented in

Table 4. Correlation matrix.

	I1	I2	I3	I4	I5	I6	I7	I8	I9	I10	I11
I1	1	0.01	0.29	−0.19	−0.27	0.05	0.46	−0.23	−0.01	0.19	0.27
I2	0.01	1	0.06	−0.33	−0.11	−0.31	0.31	−0.1	0.1	0.17	0.35
I3	0.29	0.06	1	0.22	−0.35	−0.03	−0.02	−0.01	0.16	0.25	−0.31
I4	−0.19	−0.32	0.23	1	−0.4	0.07	−0.04	0.16	0.02	−0.12	−0.21
I5	−0.27	−0.11	−0.35	−0.42	1	0.29	−0.21	0.16	−30	0.1	−0.37
I6	0.05	−0.31	−0.03	0.07	0.29	1	0.04	0.25	−25	−0.2	−0.24
I7	0.46	0.31	−0.02	−0.4	−0.21	0.04	1	−0.71	0.29	−0.29	0.29
I8	−0.23	−0.1	−0.01	0.16	0.15	0.25	−0.71	1	−0.5	0.39	0.15
I9	−0.1	0.1	0.16	0.02	−0.3	−0.25	0.28	−0.51	1	−0.8	−0.03
I10	0.19	0.17	0.25	−0.13	0.1	−0.2	−0.29	0.4	−0.8	1	0.07
I11	0.27	0.35	−0.31	−0.21	−0.37	−0.24	0.29	0.15	−0.04	0.06	1

. The variables/barriers are generally independent (correlation coefficient up to 0.45) (see Table 4). A noticeably high negative correlation in the presented correlation matrix was shown by attributes/barriers I7 (technological aspects of the power grid) and I8 (economic aspect related to the construction of the PV farm), as well as I8 (barrier related to property taxation after the construction of the PV farm) and I9 (social barrier).

4.1. Interference Associated with Electricity Grid Efficiency

Each PV farm must be connected to a source receiving the produced energy. Energy storage facilities can be used either by a direct consumer through a dedicated power grid or via the existing power grid controlled by the operator in a particular region. Currently, the existing power grid is the most commonly used in Poland. The connection of a PV farm is possible when the technical and economic conditions for the supply of electricity (as provided in the connection contract) are satisfied. Unfortunately, despite having found a suitable location, there are cases when the existing power grid is not suitable to absorb the produced electricity.

The energy infrastructure in Poland is steadily improving, but many of its components, such as transmission lines, transformer stations, and power plants, have not been upgraded since the 1980s, 1970s, or even earlier decades. Power infrastructure in Poland comprises 750 kV, 400 kV, and 220 kV transmission networks; a 110 kV primary distribution network; 30 kV, 20 kV, 15 kV, 10 kV, and 6 kV medium-voltage distribution networks; and a 0.4 kV low-voltage network. The national transmission network is made up of 14,199 km of power lines and 106 highest-voltage substations. The national distribution network comprises 33,300 km of power lines and 1,391,110 kV substations, 296,920 km of power lines, 244,410 medium-voltage stations, and 426 416 km of low-voltage power lines. Only 20% of 400 kV overhead power lines and less than 1% of 220 kV power lines in Poland are less than 10 years old (see Figure 5). Additionally, 58% of 400 kV power lines and 11% of 220 kV power lines are older than 25 years; 10% of 400 kV power lines, and as many as 74% of 220 kV power lines, are older than 35 years [37,38,39].

The target energy flows that were considered when designing the transmission lines were significantly lower than the needs occurring today. Additionally, the technical condition, age, and the extent of wear and tear of the energy infrastructure have contributed to their significant failure rate. As a result, not every location, despite meeting the spatial conditions, allows a PV system to be integrated into the existing power grid. The problem is illustrated by the aggregate power of refusals to issue a statement of PV grid connection conditions year after year (see Figure 6). In 2022, it amounted to 30.4 GW and was six times greater than the issued statement of connection conditions [40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48].

In certain locations, despite the technical feasibility of the connection, there are situations where the system during peak productivity (e.g., in summer, midday) may shut down due to overload (the grid is not able to absorb the produced energy). These incidents illustrate that the condition of the grid in Poland is a substantial barrier to the further development of PV energy generation.

4.2. The Interference Associated with Spatial Development

The acquisition of land for solar energy production purposes requires the preparation of land in both administrative, and legal and technical terms. This use of the land must be in accordance with local rules of spatial development, especially spatial order (in the case of large companies). This means that an LSDP should include a provision concerning the possibility of locating facilities associated with energy production (see Figure 7). The most common situation is that of a number of restrictions on the possibility of building an RES system (LSDP provisions do not provide for the possibility of implementing such an investment, or the provisions contain restrictions on the maximum connection capacities). This is due to the popularity of RES systems in the last 3–4 years [46]. The current LSDPs were drawn up in the years 2000–2010. At that time, the local governments did not assume that there would be a strong need for the development of this economic sector and therefore did not plan for the location of PV in LSDPs.

According to current judicial decisions in Poland, farms with a capacity of up to 100 kW can be located in areas designated for production and/or industrial functions as provided for by the LSDP [46,47,48,49]. The intended use of an area in LSDP other than RES/production/industrial necessitates carrying out an administrative and legal procedure for changing the intended use of the area in the LSDP. It is time-consuming (it can take up to 2–5 years) and guarantees no successful outcome.

In the absence of a current LSDP for a particular area, local authorities should be applied to for the establishment of the so-called building and land development conditions based on the provisions of a study of the conditions and spatial development of the commune (a document containing policy guidelines for the spatial development in the commune). The area in which a PV investment project is planned must satisfy the following conditions: (a) the existing or designed utilities are sufficient for the contemplated project; (b) the area requires no consent to change the intended use of agricultural and forest land for non-agricultural and non-forest purposes but is covered by the consent obtained when drawing up the LSDP that has expired; (c) the decision complies with separate provisions; (d) the planned project will not be located in an area for which development has been prohibited due to the establishment of a control and safety zone designated on both sides of the gas pipeline [49,50]. The location for PV determined both in the LSDP and under the procedure related to obtaining a decision on building and land development conditions requires the party concerned to obtain environmental approval.

4.3. Land Ownership—The Interference Associated with the Acquisition of Agricultural Land in Poland in the Context of Building a PV Farm

Energy production using PV farms requires large areas of land. For this reason, these should preferably be located on land with the lowest (use, market, etc.) value. In Poland, PV farms are usually located on agricultural land. Under Polish conditions, the acquisition of agricultural land for the construction of a photovoltaic farm is not an easy task.

The rules for the acquisition of agricultural land in Poland are regulated by the provisions of the Act of 11 April 2003 on the development of the agricultural system [36]. The purchaser of an agricultural property may be an individual farmer. According to the legal definition, an individual farmer is a natural person who (a) is the owner, perpetual usufructuary, owner-possessor, or lessee of agricultural properties whose total area of agricultural land does not exceed 300 ha; (b) holds agricultural qualifications; (c) for at least five years has been residing in the commune in which one of the agricultural properties being part of the agricultural farm is located (this period includes the time of residence in a different commune, immediately preceding the change of residential address, if one of the agricultural properties being part of the agricultural farm is or was located in this commune); (d) for at least five years has been personally managing an agricultural farm [36]. Persons who do not enjoy the status of a farmer may acquire agricultural plots only in exceptional cases. This applies to agricultural land with an area of less than 1 ha and agricultural land being acquired under remedial proceedings (which is aimed at avoiding the debtor’s bankruptcy utilizing debt relief) or enforcement proceedings.

The acquisition of agricultural land takes place after obtaining the consent of the general director of the National Centre for Agricultural Support (NCAS; a governmental agency managing agricultural land belonging to the Treasury) when the seller of agricultural property proves that there has been no possibility to sell this property, and the purchaser undertakes to conduct agricultural activity on the property being acquired. A contract for the sale of an agricultural property is then concluded with the reservation that the NCAS has the right of preemption in the event of the sale of the property. A new purchaser/owner is obliged to conduct agricultural activity on the acquired agricultural property for a minimum of five years (this process is supervised by NCAS). The five-year grace period related to the use of land for agricultural purposes contributes to the postponement of the investment.

The above restrictions on the acquisition of agricultural properties do not apply to:

-

land located within administrative boundaries of towns with an area of more than 1 ha;

-

agricultural land with an area of less than 3000 m²;

-

land constituting an internal road;

-

agricultural land on which at least 70% of the area is represented by land under ponds (land under ponds is a category of agricultural land in Poland).

Due to the presented determinants governing the acquisition of agricultural land by non-farmers, along with the relatively high price of this land (after Poland acceded to the European Union structures, the average price of agricultural land in private trade increased by 13 times—see Figure 8), the construction of photovoltaic farms is rarely carried out on the investor’s land, and most often on leased land. This situation is often made use of in Poland, although from the perspective of historical and mental attachment of Poles to land, it is unconventional.

The rules for concluding lease agreements in Poland are governed by the Civil Code Act [44]. The essence of a lease is that the lessor gives, for a fixed period, something to the lessee to be used and to derive benefits from, in return for which the lessee undertakes to pay a lease fee to the lessor. Therefore, a necessary feature of a lease is its chargeability. The lessee should exercise all rights in accordance with the principles of sound economy and cannot change the intended use of the subject of the lease without the lessor’s consent [45].

The signing of acquisition agreements (for ownership/lease) is limited by the fact that the legal status of the property must be clear. According to a 2018 Supreme Audit Office report covering the property of the State Treasury and the district and communal property resources, an average of 25% of plots in Poland belonging to these entities have an unclear legal status. Most plots were transport areas (33.3%) and agricultural land (33.3%) [46]. The condition of private property in Poland is even poorer, as there are no systems obliging citizens to regulate them, despite the legal obligation.

4.4. The Interference Associated with Supporting Investments from External Financial Sources

Programmes co-financing the development of PV energy generation serve a key role in the growth of solar power generation in Poland. In 2010, prosumers turned to the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management (a governmental institution) for support. This institution had funds dedicated to the development of PV and loans in which part of the capital and interest on the loan received government support. In 2014–2020, there was also funding from the EU under Regional Operational Programmes, the Operational Programme Infrastructure and Environment, and the Rural Development Programme.

In 2019, a programme called My Current, managed by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management, was launched (it only applied to microsystems). It attracted great interest from the public and contributed to an increased share of the prosumer sector in the Polish market. For 3 years, 300% less government funds for subsidies were spent, and 30% more system capacity was installed than in the years 2014–2020 (see

Table 5. Summary of basic parameters for co-financing PV systems.

	Regional Operational Programme/ The Infrastructure and Environment Operational Programme	Current Programme
Time of implementation:	2014–2020	2019–2022
Total installed capacity	1261.21 MW	1706.36 MW
Number of signed contracts	2 837	296 250
The amount of co-financing	PLN 4.27 billion	PLN 1.44 billion

Source: own study based on [51,52,53,54,55].

).

In the coming years, the programmes co-financing the development of PV will mainly support the decarbonisation of the economy and the improvement of power grid operation. At this stage, it is difficult to conclude whether this support will contribute to the development of PV systems in Poland at a similar level as in the last three years.

4.5. The Interference Associated with the Presence of Legally Protected Natural Areas

The location of a PV farm is not possible on land on which legally protected plant and animal species are found. According to the Act on nature protection [56], it is prohibited to locate structures within national parks and nature reserves. As for landscape parks and Natura 2000 areas, the construction of a photovoltaic farm is classified as a project likely to have a significant impact on the environment. This means that an environmental impact assessment must be carried out for such an investment. Deterioration of natural habitats and habitats of plant and animal species, and the violation of the integrity of the site, in the case of building a PV farm, results in an immediate prohibition of the implementation of such a project. In landscape parks, if there are water bodies such as rivers, lakes, or other natural water bodies, new facilities can be built at a minimum distance of 100 m from the shoreline [56], which forms a distance barrier.

Protected landscape areas, areas with nature monuments, documentation sites, areas for the protection of plant, animal, and fungi species, ecological sites, or landscape–nature protected complexes [56] are not subject to clearly specified prohibitions that would prevent the implementation of PV investment projects. However, activities that would lead to the destruction of a specially protected form are prohibited at such sites, which increases the risks associated with locating a PV farm. On the other hand, spa treatment areas [57,58,59], despite special local determinants, do not exclude the location of a PV farm.

As a general rule, the location of any PV farm with a built-up area of more than 0.5 ha in the area covered by forms of nature conservation (nature reserves, landscape parks, ecological sites, etc.), and of more than 1 ha in other areas (i.e., all areas regardless of whether they are covered with a legal form of conservation or not), requires obtaining an environmental permit. A PV farm is considered a development with a high potential to impact the environment, thus requiring a decision to be made. The authority is obliged to issue such a decision within a maximum of two months, but this timeframe includes no time required for opinions and agreements, which considerably extends the time for obtaining such a decision. Where an environmental impact report is required, the time extends considerably. Wildlife inventory itself lasts for approximately a year, while the coordination of activities and drawing up the final study lasts at least several more months.

4.6. The Interference Associated with Soil Quality on the Site for the Construction of a PV Farm

The construction of a photovoltaic farm on agricultural or forest land represents a permanent change in land use, which results in the land having to be taken out of agricultural production. A change in the land use for up to 10 years results in temporary exclusion and requires no fees to be paid. As for a PV system, the expected lifetime of the modules being installed ranges from 25 to 30 years [60], which is a permanent change to land use. Obtaining a decision to exclude land designated for PV from agricultural production is obligatory for all agricultural and forest land, irrespective of their quality. Not in every case is this related to paying fees. The costs associated with the exclusion of land from agricultural or forestry production are determined by soil quality and the area of land that is to be dedicated to the construction of a PV farm. The exclusion from agricultural production of land with the highest value for agriculture or forestry leads to the necessity to pay a charge for such exclusion as well as the so-called annual fees (paid over a period of 10 years). According to the Act on the protection of agricultural and forest land [49], land subject to the obligation to pay charges and fees is considered to be: (1) agricultural land (arable land/meadows/pastures) of valuation classes I, II and III, of organic and mineral origin, and of valuation classes IV, V and VI, formed from soils of organic origin (organic soils are peat and muck soils and their compilations, formed with the contribution of organic matter under excessively moist conditions); (2) other land subject to the exclusion from agricultural production, such as land under fish ponds and other water bodies, used exclusively for agricultural purposes; land under on-farm residential buildings and other buildings and facilities used exclusively for agricultural production and agri-food processing; land under buildings and facilities used directly for agricultural production recognised as a special branch (e.g., crop cultivation in greenhouses, in plastic tunnels, apiaries, poultry hatcheries, etc.); land of rural parks, and under woodlots and field shrubs, under windbreaks and anti-erosion facilities; land of family allotment gardens and botanical gardens; land under drainage systems, flood and fire control facilities, systems supplying water for agriculture, sewerage and sewage and waste disposal facilities for agriculture and rural inhabitants; land reclaimed for the needs of agriculture; land of peatlands and water holes; land under access roads to agricultural land [59].

As regards forest land, the obligation to exclude land from production applies to any type of land. The land class or origin is irrelevant here. Furthermore, in the case of forests, in addition to the charges and annual fees, the so-called one-off compensation for the premature felling of a stand of trees must be considered if such a stand is located on the land. Forest plots are usually surrounded by forests, and trees are objects that shade PV modules, and their presence limits energy production. For this reason, forest land is virtually not used for the analysed purposes.

The amounts for excluding land from agricultural production are significant and range from approx. PLN 437,175 per ha (approx. EUR 95,000 per ha) to PLN 87,435 per ha (EUR 19,000 per ha) depending on the soil class (in Poland, there are land classes used, e.g., for fiscal purposes and other administrative and legal purposes) and the material (organic/mineral) from which they were formed.

4.7. Social Interference and the Construction of a PV Farm

As in other countries, the construction of photovoltaic farms in Poland faces public opposition. In Poland, there are many areas with high natural and landscape values. Finding a location for a PV farm which, in terms of spatial development and technical conditions, enables the connection to the power grid is a difficult task. At the same time, there is also a social barrier to be reckoned with. The public has a high tolerance for PV microsystems located on building roofs and producing electricity for household consumption, but when it comes to PV farms, there are often strong objections from the public living in the vicinity. The main arguments against it focus on two aspects: spatial and well-being.

Many selected sites for the construction of PV farms are very picturesque areas, and such an investment project shatters the local landscape and changes the attractiveness of the area forever. This affects tourism, agritourism, horse riding, hiking and cycling, kayaking, and slow life. Large farms are a barrier to the development of these sites as institutions, resorts, tourist centres, and economic and social centres (e.g., creation of jobs for the local community, possibilities for the development of local companies, and the distribution of local products from farmers), as it ruins the attractiveness of the site.

The second barrier indicated by the public concerns the quality of life in the vicinity of a PV farm. The concerns relate mainly to the radiation emitted by systems, which, according to the opponents’ arguments, concern the possible effects of electromagnetic fields on the health of humans and animals as well as on crop yields, reduction in orchard productivity, etc. Scientific research in this area is not yet sufficiently developed to either confirm or reject the emerging concerns. Analysis of the literature showed that the indicated risk types may arise. For example, according to Lgarashi and Suenaga [61], the interference caused by an inverter, which converts direct current and transmits the current from photovoltaic panels to the power grid, is a major risk factor, especially when it is not installed correctly. Other risk factors reported by researchers relate to the emission of undesirable radio waves associated with the operation of the inverter [61,62,63,64,65]. The panels themselves can also serve the role of antennas and receive signals from the environment [66,67,68]. Despite the certificates held, the entire PV system, due to its design, can act as a source of excessive electromagnetic wave emissions. The safety of a PV farm is determined by many factors, i.e., the adherence to recommendations regarding their manufacturing process, installation method, quality of electrical connections, compatibility of electrical parameters between individual system components, etc. [69,70]. If these are not adhered to by technicians installing the system, it leads to malfunction and increased levels of interference. This, in turn, may result in interference affecting Wi-Fi networks, mobile telephone failures, and problems with radio and TV reception.

4.8. The Interferences Associated with Solar Energy Production Efficiency in a Selected Latitude

Solar electricity production varies depending on the geographical location. In locations with a short day, low solar insolation, the sky being frequently cloudy or snowfalls occurring with the snow settling for a long time, the possibility of energy production may not be as great as in a location with a high degree of solar insolation (

Table 6. Location parameters adopted to simulate solar energy production volumes.

Country	Latitude	Longitude	Yearly PV Production [kWh]	Variability [kWh]	The Angle of Incidence [%]	Spectral Effects [%]	Total Loss [%]
Poland	53.966	20.737	970.80	54.4	−3.02	1.75	−19.03
Lithuania	54.573	25.003	927.40	56.76	−3.1	1.69	−19.3
Latvia	56.677	23.684	943.0	42.56	−3.04	1.64	−19.71
Germany	52.575	12.951	1047.80	63.72	−3.05	1.8	−20.03
The Czech Republic	49.071	21.599	1050.70	42.99	−2.91	1.4	−20.36
France	47.846	4.900	1125.20	61.06	−3.02	1.74	−19.49
Austria	47.432	15.109	1002.40	42.52	−2.85	1.56	−19.42
Italy	45.286	9.858	1338.90	60.37	−2.69	1.15	−23.28
Spain	42.573	−2.667	1454.20	43.51	−2.74	1.05	−21.89

Source: own study on PVGIS ver. 5.2.

).

As far as the EU countries are concerned, the best efficiency in terms of geographical conditions can be achieved in Spain and Italy (see Figure 9). These countries use rocky areas located far from human settlements for the installation of photovoltaic farms. In Germany, this production is at a level similar to that in Poland. PV energy production is an important source there. In 2020, in Germany, RES energy production accounted for almost half (45%) of the produced energy, including 9% from PV [47]. Germans are mainly interested in investing in household systems including energy storage facilities.

From April to September (see Figure 5), the possibilities of producing solar electricity in Poland are at a level similar to that in other EU countries under analysis. This relationship fluctuates from October to March, with the differences in these months reaching almost 400%. The more northward the country is, the lower the energy production (see Figure 10). This is directly related to the day length: the more northward the location is, the longer the night during the autumn, winter, and spring periods.

4.9. Location of PV on the Plot—Interference Associated with the Distance between PV Cells and the Surrounding Structures

When locating PV farms in Poland, distances from roads and neighbouring properties should also be taken into account [37]. Any investment of this type must satisfy the requirements imposed by the Act on public roads [37], as the investment project must have access to a public road. The main determinants of the distance from the PV farm being designed include, e.g., the road type (motorway, expressway, public road—national, regional, district, and local) and the nature of the area (built-up or undeveloped) in which the farm is to be located. This distance varies from 6 to 50 m [37]. For a motorway, structures can be located at a distance of a minimum of 30 m from the outer edge of the road in built-up areas and 50 m outside built-up areas; for an expressway, this distance is 20 m in a built-up area and 40 m outside a built-up area; for a public road (national, regional/district, and local), these distances are 10 m, 8 m, or 6 m in built-up areas, and 25 m, 20 m, or 15 m outside a built-up area [37].

The minimum distance between a PV farm and the neighbouring property is 4 m [37]. This distance allows the investment to be secured against possible claims. However, it is often the case that the inhabitants are disturbed by the sound of an inverter which quite often disturbs the peace and emits too loud a sound. It is therefore optimal to locate the system approx. 100 m away from residential buildings.

4.10. The Interference in Economy—Taxation of Investments with VAT for PV Microsystems

A very important aspect for prosumers was the way in which the installation of a system was taxed. In the years 2018–2019, systems located on the roof of a residential building were taxed at 8%, while those located on other structures (garages, sheds, outbuildings, canopies, etc.) or on the ground were taxed at 23%.

The regulations introduced in 2020 have improved the prosumer’s situation in this regard. Currently, the 8% VAT rate on photovoltaic panels applies to individual investors (who produce electricity for their own household needs), regardless of where the system is located, and to the structures covered by the so-called social housing programme. The programme covers buildings with a usable floor space of up to 300 m² and flats with a floor space of up to 150 m². The programme is also open to farmers/agricultural producers who generate electricity for their own needs and housing communities and cooperatives. This also applies to the communes which install panels on the roofs of buildings with a usable floor space of up to 300 m², covered by a social housing programme. Any service related to the thermal modernization of a building qualifies.

A higher VAT rate of 23% applies to legal persons, i.e., those using PV panels to conduct business activities. This tax rate also applies when housing communities and cooperatives as well as communes install a solar power plant on a building with a usable floor space exceeding 300 m². The higher VAT rate also applies to the so-called agro-photovoltaics (which combines agricultural crop cultivation and special panels in one area, which are positioned higher and can serve the function of shading in an open field, covering greenhouse crops, etc.) [66,71,72,73].

Legal solutions enable the recovery of a portion of the invested funds, e.g., in the form of a tax deduction in the citizen’s annual tax return. This is a mechanism to encourage the construction of microsystems. Natural persons can benefit from deductions under the so-called thermal modernisation relief, while farmers/agricultural producers, who have invested in agro-photovoltaics and use solar energy for their activities, can benefit from a 25% investment relief in agricultural tax.

Legal persons have the option to exercise their right to a VAT refund, i.e., to reduce the amount of output tax by the amount of input tax [66,71,72,73].

4.11. Property Tax—A Change in Land Use in the Cadastral Register and Its Consequences for Property Taxation

The change in land use from agricultural land to another, in this case, a PV farm, once the land is taken out from agricultural production, also has consequences on the amount of property taxation. In Poland, the cadastral tax has still not been implemented, and the system of property taxation depends on the use and the area of the land [66,71,72,73]. The following taxes can be distinguished: property tax (the sum of tax on land and tax on buildings and structures), agricultural tax, and forestry tax.

Properties used for agricultural purposes are subject to agricultural tax; this changes when a photovoltaic system is built. The previous agricultural use of land is changed in the cadastral register to other built-up areas—an area occupied for the construction of structures, or facilities related to buildings, in particular: ground ducts, etc., is marked Bi [67], which results in a change in the amount of land tax [66,67,71,72,73] (the change is from approx. PLN 200 per ha to approx. PLN 10,000 per ha).

Land with a PV farm is also charged with a tax on structures (technical infrastructure related to energy production). According to the court ruling [71], it is permissible to divide this infrastructure by the function it performs. The space under transformers, transmission ducts, and access roads to PV is charged with a tax on “other land” [59,62,63], while the space occupied by anchors, foundations, and PV module mountings is taxed at a rate of tax on structures. Its amount depends on the cost value of components and amounts to 2% of this value. The value of the photovoltaic modules [62,63] does not feature in the taxation of the property, as they are a movable part (not permanently connected to the land).

5. Discussion

Political events in Europe over the past two years have pushed the green transition into the background. Today, it can be concluded that it was a short-term perspective. The EU is now increasing its RES targets, not only because of climate protection but also because of its willingness to replace gas for heat and power generation and its plan to move quickly and completely away from fuel imports from Russia. According to the report published by the Institute for Renewable Energy [67,68,74], RES production in EU countries in 2022 increased by 27% for solar energy generation and 11% for onshore wind energy generation [27,28]. The new EU solar energy strategy aims at installing more than 320 GW of solar photovoltaic capacity as early as 2025 and almost 600 GW by 2030 [27,28].

The multitude of existing interferences that hinder PV development may result in a decline in interest in PV systems.

The barriers identified by the experts and their validation showed that the most hindering obstacle to the development of PV farms appears to be the state of the energy infrastructure in Poland. The existing power grid does not meet today’s needs, and the implementation of new investment projects comes at a high cost. Both investors and decision-makers recognise this state of affairs and tend to look for solutions. One approach involves cable pooling, allowing two or more renewable energy installations, belonging to one or more generators, to be connected to the electricity grid at a single location [68]. The construction of a new power grid for several entities can solve the problem of inadequate condition of the power grid in the location under study.

A second, equally important obstacle to the development of PV farms appears to be spatial planning and the inadequacy of LSDPs to accommodate PV investment development.

Legislative steps have been taken to develop, in all communes (by the end of 2025), so-called general plans that will explicitly foresee zones for the RES development, or so-called open, economic mining zones on land of average quality in terms of functional quality (valuation class IV–VI).

The location of large, free-standing PV farms will still require the development of a local plan that is supposed to be consistent with the general plan. This will be possible through the so-called simplified procedure that mainly involves shortening the procedure for adopting/amending the local plan and reducing the interference by citizens. This solution will only apply to land of medium soil quality class (IV–VI class) [67,75]. In other cases, on land suitable for agricultural use, it will only be possible to develop the local plan through a standard procedure. The proposed solution is promising because the land of valuation class IV covers 39.5% [51] of all agricultural land in Poland. When developing general and local plans in terms of RES location, it would be good practice to consider connection capacities with local energy operators. This information would greatly simplify and shorten the search for a suitable location for a PV farm.

When analysing the rules for locating PV farms in the context of spatial development, in other European countries, it should be noted that the procedures are sometimes less difficult than those in Poland. In Germany, the procedure for obtaining a permit for the construction of a PV farm is similar to that currently used in Poland. Germany is a federal state comprising constituent states (Lands) with their constitutional orders and different legal orders for spatial planning and development. An integrated planning system has been built there, with each of its levels performing specific functions. The commune level is responsible for implementation planning; at the Land level, the spatial policy of the state is pursued; and at the federal level, framework conditions for the spatial economy are created. The location of photovoltaic farms in Germany is regulated under the general spatial planning system, as no specific statutory provisions have been introduced for photovoltaic farms. Such projects are implemented based on the housing land development plan in force for the particular building site or its amendment. The site allocated for a PV investment project already has an environmental assessment, which facilitates the implementation of the investment. The location of a PV farm is also possible based on an administrative permit issued on an individual basis [51,52,53,74].

Poland has a spatial planning system similar to that of Germany. Where applicable local plans are in place, a PV farm can be established only on land with an appropriate entry in the local plan (RES). However, the performance of the environmental impact assessment is up to the party concerned. The absence of a current local plan requires obtaining the so-called decision on building and land development conditions. In this case, it is also up to the party concerned to obtain an environmental decision or an environmental impact assessment.

The spatial planning system of Sweden and the Scandinavian countries is sometimes referred to as a hybrid system. It was established as a result of the implementation of regulations present in spatial planning systems in the Germanic, Napoleonic, and British countries [51,52,53,74]. In Sweden, three levels of state activity in the field of spatial planning can be distinguished: state, regional, and local. Spatial planning at the state level involves the formulation of national spatial planning objectives that are included in the policies prepared by the ministries responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, and industry. The implementation of spatial planning assumptions at the regional and local level is controlled and assessed by the National Council for Housing, Construction and Planning, the National Council of Railway Administration, and the Environmental Protection Agency. The arrangements for the location of photovoltaic farms are included in detailed development plans or, in their absence, in the content of the area-related regulations. Detailed development plans have a generally applicable force and are adopted in the case of planned changes to the development of a particular area [51,52,53,74]. The adoption of a detailed development plan is subject to approval by the commune and is not obligatory. Detailed regulations (e.g., for photovoltaic farms) are adopted by communes for areas not covered by the provisions of detailed development plans. The function of area-related regulations is to ensure that the basic principles and decisions expressed in adopted general plans and the public interest as defined in policies adopted at the state level are taken into account at the local level of spatial planning [52,53]. The system functioning in the Scandinavian family states in terms of spatial development is similar to that planned to be implemented in Poland. At the level of each commune—general plans may include provisions concerning the location of PV farms on land of medium and poor quality, while the obligation to draw up a local plan—on land of good quality for agricultural production (for areas of valuation classes I–III).

The third most important barrier identified by the experts is the ownership system of agricultural land, creating an inability to sign lease agreements for a PV farm. The solution to the problem remains beyond the reach of policymakers and investors. The unregulated legal status of many properties, and the long and complicated administrative and legal procedures may contribute to the failure to achieve the set targets.

The fourth most important barrier relates to the level of current government support for the development of PV investments. The level of support varies depending on the financial perspective of the current authorities [54,55]. However, this is a barrier that is difficult to solve, as it requires finding a balance between the needs of investors and the capacity of government, economic, environmental, and social policies implemented.

Permit acquisition procedures, about environmental interference, represent another important barrier identified by experts. Environmental concerns and restrictions oblige investors to acquire administrative permits for the construction of a PV farm in a specific location. The analysed interferences relate to the timing and the obligation to carry out an environmental impact assessment. Currently, the location of any PV farm with a built-up area of more than 0.5 ha in areas subject to forms of nature conservation and of more than 1 ha in other areas requires obtaining an environmental permit. These are time-consuming procedures. For example, under Spanish law, the performance of a simple impact assessment is required for projects related to the energy industry, including PV systems not located on roofs, with an area of more than 100 ha, and for photovoltaic systems located in protected areas (including Natura 2000 sites), if their area exceeds 10 ha. A simplified assessment is required for PV systems located outside urbanised areas, with an area of more than 10 ha [54,55,76,77]. When such procedures should be carried out, the surface requirements are significantly less strict than those in Poland. The construction of a photovoltaic farm in Germany requires no environmental impact assessment for a specific location. This is being done at the same time when the so-called housing land development plans are being adopted or amended. Under this planning procedure, the impact of the PV farm is investigated [54,76,77]. When choosing the PV location, the investor already knows the environmental determinants in this regard. In turn, in France, an environmental impact assessment is required for all photovoltaic farms with a capacity of more than 250 kW (covering an area of approx. 1.5 ha). The French approach is qualitative and is mainly based on thorough analyses of the existing and designed conditions of the project concerned. The recommended approach is that the landscape should not only be regarded as an “obstacle” that is (adversely) affected by the implementation of the investment project but primarily as an element to which the investment project should adapt and which should be taken into account when designing a PV farm. Preference is given to design solutions related to the selection of an appropriate location or adaptation to the terrain and less frequently to activities taken to minimise the system impact (e.g., shelter plantings) [54,76,77].

The use of practices applied in other countries enables the simplification or integration of some of the procedures existing in Poland for a potential investor to achieve information on the possibility of locating an investment project in a shorter period.

Table 7. Recommendations for minimising interferences to photovoltaic development.

Interferences Type	Recommendations
Energy acquisition efficiency	priority of selecting areas/regions with the most solar insolation in Poland for the construction of PV systems; an in-depth analysis of investment project profitability in locations with lower solar insolation.
Land ownership	an incentive from local governments to regulate the legal status of land, e.g., in the form of property tax reductions, etc.;
Spatial planning	implementation of a system of financial assistance to local governments (targeted subsidy) for the development of general/local plans; incentives for investors regarding the location of a PV system in a particular commune based on developed planning documents with a fixed connection capacity.
Soil quality	changes to the law to enable a PV system to be located on class IV land (without fees for the exclusion from agricultural production) if the land has been set aside in the last five years.
Natural environment	the location of a PV farm established in general/local plans along with environmental assessment.
Technological aspect	planning in general/local plans of the location of areas for the development of PV and the determination of possible connection capacities; increasing the connection capacities to the power grid—the task requires investments in the condition of energy infrastructure; incentives for the construction of common systems for wind farms and PV (the so-called cable pooling).
Economic aspect	continuation of tax concessions for prosumers.
Location of PV on the plot	setting the standards of distance from the nearest residential development; shortening the procedure for obtaining the necessary permits related to the location of PV systems.
Property tax	an obligation to disclose in cadastral data all PV systems and their location on maps (currently, PV systems with a capacity of up to 50 kW are not listed in public registers); introduction of a tax for all systems located on land, including those with a capacity of up to 50 kW (currently, such systems are not taxed).
Social interference	increasing the funding for scientific research into the possible impact of PV systems on human health and lives, with consideration given to the system capacity, its location, and the elements that offset harmful impact; information campaigns comparing the impact of PV on humans vs. other sources of energy production; reducing the time of waiting for power grid connection conditions.
External co-financing	Increasing government subsidies supporting the development of PV at each level, from prosumer to mass producer.

summarises recommendations that facilitate the selection of an appropriate location for all parties involved.

6. Conclusions

Being a leader in the EU in terms of the number of installed PV systems necessitates making an intense effort. The study identified eleven interferences/barriers occurring at the state level. The research conducted in the presented study showed that local geographical conditions are not a determinant of PV development. The most important barrier is the state of the energy infrastructure, the current spatial planning system, the unregulated ownership of land for planned PV investments, and unsatisfactory government support for PV projects. Some interferences prove difficult to find a solution to due to the autonomy in the decision-making of actors (e.g., electricity system operators, municipalities, etc.). The presented elaboration contains recommendations capable of simplifying procedures on a regional scale. Implementing them into the current legal order is time-consuming and costly and requires the active involvement of many parties.