E-Fuels: A Comprehensive Review of the Most Promising Technological Alternatives towards an Energy Transition
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Raw Materials for E-Fuels Production
2.1. Hydrogen
2.1.1. General Information
2.1.2. E-Hydrogen
2.2. Carbon Dioxide
2.2.1. CCUS
2.2.2. DAC
Absorption and Electrodialysis
Absorption and Calcination
Adsorption and Desorption (TSA)
2.3. Nitrogen
2.4. Electricity Consumption
3. E-Fuels Types
3.1. E-Methane
3.2. E-Methanol
3.3. E-DME/OME
3.4. E-Diesel/Kerosene/Gasoline
3.5. E-Ammonia
4. Technological and Environmental Analysis
4.1. Readiness Level Indicators
4.2. Conversion Efficiency
4.3. Climate Mitigation Effectiveness
5. E-Fuel Challenges and Perspectives
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AEC | Alkaline electrolyzer cell |
BEV | Battery electric vehicles |
CCS | Carbon capture and storage |
CCUS | Carbon capture utilization and storage |
CRL | Commercial readiness level |
CSIRO | Commonwealth scientific and industrial research organization |
DAC | Direct air capture |
DME | Dimethyl ether |
FC | Fuel-Cell |
FT | Fischer–Tropsch synthesis |
GHG | Greenhouse gas |
GtL | Gas-to-liquid |
GWP | Global warming potential |
ICE | Internal combustion engine |
JRC | Joint research centre |
LCA | Life cicle assessment |
LHV | Lower Heating Value |
LPG | Liquefied Petroleum Gas |
MRL | Market readiness level |
MTG | Methanol-to-Gasoline |
OMEx | Oxymethylene ethers |
PEM | Proton exchange membrane |
PtF | Power-to-fuel |
PtG | Power-to-gas |
PtL | Power-to-liquid |
PtX | Power-to-X |
RES | Renewable energy sources |
RFNBO | Renewable fuels of non-biological origin |
RWGS | Reverse water gas shift |
SAF | Sustainable Aviation Fuel |
SOEC | Solid oxide electrolyzer cell |
TRL | Technology readiness level |
TSA | Temperature swing adsorption |
TTW | Tank-to-Wheel efficiency |
WLTP | Worldwide harmonized vehicles test procedure |
WTT | Well-to-Tank efficiency |
WTW | Well-to-Wheel efficiency |
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CCUS Technology | Post Combustion | Pre Combustion | Oxyfuel Combustion |
---|---|---|---|
Technology maturity | Commercial | Commercial | Under development |
Applications | Commercial and industrial power plants | Natural gas power plants and process industry | Appropriate for some types of coal fuels |
Advantages | - Excellent for renovation of existing power plants; - Matured technology | - Low gas volume; - High pressure; - High CO2 concentration; - Less energy intensive; - Easy CO2 separation; - Lower water consumption | - More sustainable; - No chemical operation; - High efficiency; - Reduction of NOx; - Easy to capture CO2. |
Disadvantages | Low CO2 partial pressure in flue gas | High energy loss due to sorbent regeneration | Low net power output |
Capital cost | Excessive cost of system operation | Excessive cost compared to a coal plant cost | Excessive cost of air separation system |
Flow | Quantity |
---|---|
H2 consumption (total) | 0.493 kg |
H2 consumption from RWGS | 0.169 kg |
H2 consumption from FT and hydrocracking | 0.324 kg |
CO2 consumption | 3.715 kg |
CO equivalent | 2.364 kg |
Gas burned | 0.237 kg |
H2O production | 2971 kg |
Power consumption | 1.90 MJ |
Heat production | 9.22 MJ |
Description TRL | TRL | MRL | CRL |
---|---|---|---|
Basic principles observed | 1 | - | - |
Technology concept formulated | 2 | - | - |
Experimental proof of concept | 3 | - | - |
Technology validated in lab | 4 | 1 | - |
Technology validated in relevant environment (industrially relevant environment in the case of key enabling technologies) | 5 | 2 | - |
Technology demonstrated in relevant environment (industrially relevant environment in the case of key enabling technologies) | 6 | 3 | - |
System prototype demonstration in operational environment | 7 | 4 | 1 |
System complete and qualified | 8 | 5 | 2 |
Actual system is proven in operational environment (competitive manufacturing in the case of key enabling technologies or in space) | 9 | 6 | 3 |
Multiple commercial applications becoming evident locally although still subsidized. Verifiable data on technical and financial performance in the public domain driving interest from a variety of debt and equity sources however still requiring government support. Regulatory challenges being addressed in multiple jurisdictions | - | - | 4 |
Market competition driving widespread deployment in the context of long-term policy settings. Competition emerging across all areas of the supply chain with commoditization of key components and financial products occurring | - | - | 5 |
‘Bankable’ grade asset class driven by the same criteria as other mature energy technologies. Considered as a ‘blankable’ grade asset class with known standards and performance expectations. Market and technology risks do not drive investment decisions. Proponent capability, pricing, and other typical market forces driving uptake | - | - | 6 |
Fuel | Pathway | TRL | MRL | CRL |
---|---|---|---|---|
e-H2 | AEC | 9 | - | - |
PEM | 5–7 | - | - | |
SOEC | 3–5 | - | - | |
CO2 capture | post combustion | 9 | - | - |
pre combustion | 7 | - | - | |
oxyfuel combustion | 7 | - | - | |
DAC adsorption/desorption | 6 | 3 | 1 | |
DAC absorption/calcination | 5 | 2 | - | |
DAC adbsorption/electrodialysis | 4 | 1 | - | |
e-CH4 | Catalyt. methanation with low temperature electrolysis | 6–9 (DAC a) | ≥5 | ≥2 |
Catalyt. methanation with high temperature electrolysis | 6 (SOEC b) | 3 | 1 | |
e-CH3OH | Methanol synthesis with low temperature electrolysis | 6–9 (DAC) | ≥5 | ≥2 |
Methanol synthesis with high temperature electrolysis | 6 (SOEC) | 3 | 1 | |
PtL | Fischer–Tropsch route with low temperature electrolysis | 6 (RWGS c) | 3 | 1 |
Fischer–Tropsch route with high temperature electrolysis | 6 (SOEC, RWGS) | 3 | 1 | |
Methanol route with low temperature electrolysis | 6–9 (DAC) | ≥5 | ≥2 | |
Methanol route with high temperature electrolysis | 6 (SOEC) | 3 | 1 |
Powertrain Type | Energy Vector | WTT Efficiency | TTW Efficiency | WTW Efficiency | Specific Electric Consumption for Medium Size Cars in WLTP [kWh/100 km] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BEV | Electricity | 0.85 | 0.90 | 0.77 | 19.5 |
ICE | E-hydrogen (700 bar) | 0.55 | 0.35 | 0.19 | 78.5 |
E-hydrogen (liquid) | 0.49 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 88.2 | |
E-methanol | 0.49 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 86.9 | |
E-diesel | 0.44 | 0.35 | 0.15 | 98.1 | |
E-ammonia | 0.48 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 88.6 | |
E-DME | 0.51 | 0.35 | 0.18 | 83.6 | |
E-methane (220 bar) | 0.47 | 0.35 | 0.16 | 92.2 | |
E-methane (liquid) | 0.46 | 0.35 | 0.16 | 94.0 | |
FC | E-hydrogen (700 bar) | 0.55 | 0.5 | 0.27 | 54.9 |
E-hydrogen (liquid) | 0.49 | 0.5 | 0.24 | 61.7 | |
E-methanol | 0.49 | 0.5 | 0.25 | 60.9 | |
E-ammonia | 0.48 | 0.5 | 0.24 | 62.0 |
Properties | Fossil Fuels | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Gasoline | Diesel | Kerosene | LPG | |
Density (kg/m3) | 715–780 | 815–855 | 780–810 | 540 (at 10 bar) |
Boiling point (°C) | 25–215 | 170–380 | 151–301 | −41 to−0.5 |
LHV (MJ/L) | 31.2–32.2 | 35.3–36 | 35.3 | 24.8 |
Octane number | 90–95 | - | - | 105–115 |
Cetane number | - | 45–53 | - | - |
Proprietà | E-Fuels | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FT-Diesel | FT-Gasoline | MtG | FT-Kerosene | MtJ * | DME | OME2–5 | Methanol | |
Miscibility | In diesel | in gasoline | In gasoline | In jet fuel | in jet fuel | In LPG | In diesel | In gasoline and diesel |
Density (kg/m3) | 765–845 | 720–755 | 720–755 | 730–770 | 730–770 | gas | 961–1100 | 792 |
Boiling point (°C) | 85–360 | 210 (FBP) ** | 210 (FBP) * | 205–300 | 205–300 | −24.8 | 105–280 | 65 |
LHV (MJ/l) | 33.1–34.3 | 30–33 | 30–33 | - | - | 18.3–19.3 | 19.5–19.7 | 15.4–15.6 |
Octane number | - | up to 85 | up to 85 | - | - | - | - | 110–112 |
Cetane number | 70–80 | - | - | - | - | up to 55 | 63–110 | 5 |
E-Fuels | Storage | Additional Infrastructures | Powertrain Development | |
---|---|---|---|---|
GAS | E-hydrogen | Difficult | Yes | No ** |
E-methane | Medium * | No | No | |
LIQUID | E-ammonia | Easy | Yes | Yes |
E-methanol | Easy | No | Yes | |
E-DME/OME | Easy | Yes | Yes | |
E-diesel/gasoline/kerosene | Easy | No | No |
Transport Sectors | Infrastructure | Storage | Investment | GHG Reduction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fossil fuels | All | Existing | Easy | Low | Low |
Electricity | LDV/HDV * | New | Difficult | High | High |
Biofuels | All ** | Existing | Easy | Medium | High |
E-fuels | All | Existing *** | Easy | High | High |
E-Fuels | Light Duty | Heavy Duty | Maritime | Aviation | Other Sectors | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GAS | E-hydrogen | XX | XX | X | X | |
E-methane | X | XX | XX | XXX | ||
LIQUID | E-ammonia | X | X | XXX | ||
E-methanol | XX | X | X | |||
E-DME/OME | X | XX | XX | |||
E-diesel/gasoline/kerosene | X | XXX | XX * | XXX ** |
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Dell’Aversano, S.; Villante, C.; Gallucci, K.; Vanga, G.; Di Giuliano, A. E-Fuels: A Comprehensive Review of the Most Promising Technological Alternatives towards an Energy Transition. Energies 2024, 17, 3995. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163995
Dell’Aversano S, Villante C, Gallucci K, Vanga G, Di Giuliano A. E-Fuels: A Comprehensive Review of the Most Promising Technological Alternatives towards an Energy Transition. Energies. 2024; 17(16):3995. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163995
Chicago/Turabian StyleDell’Aversano, Sonia, Carlo Villante, Katia Gallucci, Giuseppina Vanga, and Andrea Di Giuliano. 2024. "E-Fuels: A Comprehensive Review of the Most Promising Technological Alternatives towards an Energy Transition" Energies 17, no. 16: 3995. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163995