Revolution in Renewables: Integration of Green Hydrogen for a Sustainable Future
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Green Hydrogen Foundations
2.1. Green Hydrogen Value Chain
2.1.1. Production through Electrolysis
2.1.2. Purification
2.1.3. Storage
2.1.4. Transport
2.1.5. End Uses
2.2. RESs for Green Hydrogen Production
3. Evolving Market Dynamics
Project Name | Capacity | Status | Country | Brief Description |
---|---|---|---|---|
NortH2 Project [123] | 10 GW | Developing | Netherlands | Consortium with Shell, aims to produce 1 MMT of hydrogen annually using offshore wind. |
H2Mare Project [124] | Not specified | Developing | Germany | 32 partners, adding electrolyzers to wind turbines for green hydrogen, operational by 2025. |
AquaVentus [125] | 10 GW | Developing | Germany | Generates hydrogen using offshore wind for a European network, completion by 2035. |
Murchison Renewable Hydrogen Project [126] | 5 GW | Developing | Australia | Uses wind and solar for hydrogen, targets 2 MMT of ammonia by 2028. |
Western Green Energy Hub (WGEH) [127] | 50 GW | Developing | Australia | Integrates wind and solar for 3.5 MMT of hydrogen and 20 MMT of ammonia annually. |
Beijing Jingneng Inner Mongolia [128] | 5 GW | Operational | China | Utilizes wind and solar for 0.4–0.5 MMT hydrogen yearly. |
NEOM Green Hydrogen Plant [129] | 4 GW | Developing | Saudi Arabia | Combines solar and wind for daily production of 600 MMT hydrogen, operational by 2026. |
Appalachian Hydrogen Hub (ARCH2) [130] | Not specified | Developing | USA | Uses natural gas for clean hydrogen, includes infrastructure for CO2 storage. |
Mid-Atlantic Hydrogen Hub (MACH2) [130] | Not specified | Developing | USA | Focuses on renewable hydrogen for decarbonization, reducing 1 MMT carbon per year. |
California Hydrogen Hub (ARCHES) [130] | Not specified | Developing | USA | Produces hydrogen from renewables and biomass, reducing 2 MMT carbon annually. |
Gulf Coast Hydrogen Hub (HyVelocity) [130] | Not specified | Developing | USA | Uses gas with carbon capture for hydrogen, aims to cut 7 MMT carbon yearly. |
St. Gabriel Green Hydrogen Plant [131] | Not specified | Operational | USA | Plug Power and Olin Corp project, initially producing 15 MMT of hydrogen daily. |
Calistoga Resiliency Center [132] | 293 MWh | Developing | USA | The largest utility-scale green hydrogen energy storage project in the USA, designed to provide long-duration storage. |
4. Long-Term Operational Strategies
4.1. Long-Term Operational Strategies for Grid-Connected Hydrogen Systems
4.2. Long-Term Operational Strategies for Islanded Hydrogen Systems
5. Short-Term Operational Strategies
5.1. Short-Term Operational Strategies for Grid-Connected Hydrogen Systems
5.2. Short-Term Operational Strategies for Islanded Hydrogen Systems
6. Conclusions and Outlook
6.1. Conclusions
6.2. Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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AEL | PEM | SOEC | AEM | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Technological readiness | Mature | Commercialized | Demonstration | Prototype |
OER | ||||
HER | ||||
Efficiency (%) | 50–78 | 50–83 | 70–90 | 40–70 |
Current density (A/cm2) | 0.2–0.8 | 1–4 | 0.2–1 | 0.2–2 |
Productivity index (kg H2/kWh) | 0.8–1.2 | 1.2–1.8 | 1.8–2.5 | 0.8–1.5 |
Voltage ranges (V) | 1.4–3.0 | 1.4–2.5 | 1.0–1.5 | 1.4–2.0 |
Response time at stand-by | seconds | milliseconds | minutes | seconds |
Operating temperature (°C) | 60–90 | 50–80 | 700–1000 | 40–60 |
Cell pressure (bar) | ≤30 | ≤100 | 1–25 | ≤35 |
Hydrogen purity (%) | 99.5–99.9998 | 99.9–99.9999 | 99.9–99.999 | 99.9–99.9999 |
Stack lifetime (hour) | 60,000–100,000 | 20,000–80,000 | <20,000 | >30,000 |
Cost (U.S.$/kW) | 500–1400 | 1100–1800 | 2800–5600 | N/A |
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Zhang, J.; Li, J. Revolution in Renewables: Integration of Green Hydrogen for a Sustainable Future. Energies 2024, 17, 4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164148
Zhang J, Li J. Revolution in Renewables: Integration of Green Hydrogen for a Sustainable Future. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164148
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Jimiao, and Jie Li. 2024. "Revolution in Renewables: Integration of Green Hydrogen for a Sustainable Future" Energies 17, no. 16: 4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164148