Extending the Lifetime of Offshore Wind Turbines: Challenges and Opportunities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
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- Economic benefits: Lifetime extension saves capital expenditures (CapEx) needed for constructing new wind farms, mitigates financial risks compared to investing in greenfield projects, enhances return on investment (ROI), improves energy output, and ultimately lowers the levelized cost of electricity (LCoE).
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- Technical benefits: Lifetime extension improves the operational condition of aging OWTs by conducting repairs on damaged parts, implementing software upgrades and adjustments, and updating safety systems and protocols to an acceptable level.
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- Social benefits: Lifetime extension secures existing jobs while also potentially creating new job opportunities in the second-hand OWT sector (i.e., repair, refurbishment, and remanufacturing).
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- Environmental benefits: Lifetime extension helps protect the marine ecosystem and preserve the natural environment by reducing pollutant emissions associated with constructing new wind farms. It also supports biodiversity and maintains ecological balance in marine environments by minimizing disturbances to marine habitats.
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- Legal benefits: Lifetime extension provides legal certainty for investors and stakeholders by maintaining a stable operating framework and avoiding disruptions that could arise from the decommissioning and replacement of wind farm infrastructure.
2. PESTLE Analysis for Lifetime Extension of OWTs
2.1. PESTLE Background
2.2. PESTLE Analysis for OWT Lifetime Extension
2.2.1. Political Challenges
2.2.2. Economic Challenges
2.2.3. Sociological Challenges
2.2.4. Technological/Technical Challenges
Degradation of OWT Structures and Components
Lack of Good Quality Data
Lack of Appropriate Tools to Optimize Maintenance Activities
Technology Obsolescence
Selection of the Most Suitable Lifetime Extension Technology
2.2.5. Legal Challenges
2.2.6. Environmental/Ecological Challenges
3. Experiences and Lessons Learned from Conventional Energy Industries
3.1. Nuclear Power Industry
3.2. Offshore Oil and Gas Industry
4. Lifetime Extension Process for OWTs
4.1. Lifetime Estimation Process and Aging Failure Mode Analysis
4.1.1. Electrical Subsystems
Generator
Cables
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- Low-voltage time domain reflectometry test: This test measures the true length of the cable, identifies splice locations, and assesses the condition of the concentric neutral.
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- Leakage current measurements at direct voltages or below the peak operating voltage: This test aims to detect cables that may be affected by water treeing.
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- Partial discharge measurements: This test is used to detect potential difference (PD) sites using time domain reflectometry.
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- Breakdown voltage test: This test uses a cos-rectangular or sine wave test supply to locate breakdown sites in buried cables for recovery and examination.
Converter, Filters and Circuit Breakers
Transformer
Substations
4.1.2. Mechanical Subsystems
Rotor (hub)
Blades
Gearbox
4.1.3. Power Control Systems
Pitch Control System
Yaw System
Sensors
Control and Monitoring Systems
4.1.4. Structural Components
Main Frame
Tower and Foundation
4.2. Lifetime Extension Strategies for OWTs
4.2.1. Retrofitting
4.2.2. Reconditioning
4.2.3. Remanufacturing
4.2.4. Reusing
4.2.5. Reclaiming
5. Lifetime Extension Decision-Making for OWTs
5.1. Planning, Evaluation and Information Update
5.2. Subsystems/Components Screening and Prioritisation
5.3. Safety and Structural Integrity Assessments
5.4. Economic, Environmental and Regulatory Assessments
5.5. Life Extension Decision Making
6. Opportunities
6.1. Business Opportunities
6.2. Research Opportunities
7. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nuclear Power Industry | Offshore Oil & Gas Industry | Current Practices in Wind Energy | Recommendations for Wind Energy | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lifetime extension standards | There is no universally accepted standard for lifetime extension; however, the periodic safety review (PSR) remains the primary regulatory process for authorizing such projects. | There are several standards for authorizing lifetime extension of subsea structures and pipeline systems: NORSOK U-009 [40], NORSOK Y-002 [41], ISO/TS 12747 [42]. | Several recent standards provide general principles, technical requirements, and guidance for certifying the lifetime extension of wind turbines: DNVGL-ST-0262 [43], DNVGL-SE-0263 [44], IEC/TS 61400-28 [45], IEA Wind TCP Task 42 [46]. | There is a pressing need to develop a ‘unified’ standard for the lifetime extension of OWTs. This standard should include guidelines that address structural integrity, operational efficiency, environmental impact, and economic viability throughout the wind farm lifecycle. |
Lifetime extension methodologies | They often use comprehensive and structured technical assessment frameworks. | They usually apply methodological techno-economic feasibility assessment frameworks. | There is no comprehensive and structured approach for lifetime extension feasibility assessments. | There is a need for a ‘holistic’ approach that integrates technical, economic, environmental, social, and political aspects in the certification of lifetime extension for OWTs. |
Lifetime extension monitoring | PSA tools are widely used to screen, prioritize, and monitor critical safety elements within a nuclear power plant. | Generic industrial tools are used for screening and prioritizing critical components for lifetime extension in subsea systems. Additionally, PSA tools are gradually being used. | There is currently no established approach in the wind energy sector for prioritizing and monitoring critical wind turbine components for lifetime extension. | There is a need to develop a ‘systematic’ decision-making approach that incorporates PSA tools to screen, prioritize, and monitor critical components within an offshore wind farm. |
Lifetime extension risk assessment | Probabilistic risk assessment tools are widely used to estimate the consequences of system failure during lifetime extension. | Probabilistic risk assessment tools are often used to estimate the consequences of system failure during lifetime extension. | Probabilistic risk assessment tools are gradually being used to extend the lifetime of wind turbine components. | A more ‘thorough’ risk assessment methodology incorporating all aspects is needed for OWTs during the lifetime extension phase of operation. |
Lifetime extension strategy selection | There are well-established approaches, such as MCDM, LCA, and BCA, for selecting a suitable lifetime extension strategy. | There are well-established approaches, such as MCDM, LCA, and BCA, for selecting a suitable lifetime extension strategy. | Currently, the selection of a lifetime extension strategy in the wind energy sector is predominantly based on expert opinion. | There is a need for a ‘structured’ framework to evaluate various factors, ensuring a more balanced assessment of lifetime extension strategies. |
Subsystem/Component | Life Estimation Process | Dominant Failure Modes | Potential Mitigation Actions | Lifetime Extension Strategy |
---|---|---|---|---|
Generator | Lifetime estimation often relies on statistical analysis of historical inspection and maintenance data. | Crack in rotor bar and breakage of rotor bar. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reconditioning, remanufacturing, and reuse. |
Cables | Lifetime estimation often relies on low voltage time domain reflectometry tests, leakage current measurements, partial discharge measurements, and breakdown voltage tests. | Water treeing and aging insulation material. | Through diligent design and proper material selection. | Reuse, reclaiming. |
Converter, filters and circuit breakers | Lifetime estimation often relies on statistical analysis of historical inspection and maintenance data. | Electrical faults, capacitor fire, wear and tear. | Inspecting capacitors for potential damage and breakers for signs of wear and tear. | Retrofitting, reuse. |
Transformer | Lifetime estimation often relies on partial discharge tests, insulation resistance tests and visual inspections. | Degrading insulating material properties, contaminated oil. | Inspecting for partial discharge, dust accumulation in cooling channels, and checking for bent connection rods between taps and other connections, along with regular oil testing for contaminants. | Retrofitting, reuse. |
Substation grid | Lifetime estimation often relies on statistical analysis of visual inspection data and laboratory testing. | Corrosion, wear, tear and obsolescence. | Regular inspection, maintenance and testing of various systems for possible defects. | Retrofitting, reconditioning. |
Rotor (Hub) | Lifetime estimation often relies on revisiting design phase load models and analyses, incorporating updated information. | Broken and/or loosely mounted bolts, corrosion fatigue of hub structure and material degradation. | Visual inspection for cracks and corrosion on the hub, supplemented by non-destructive testing (NDT) if necessary. | Reconditioning, remanufacturing. |
Blades | The remaining fatigue life of the blades can be estimated using design phase load models updated with current information. | Cracks and delamination of the composite blades as a result of fatigue, leading-edge erosion. | Visual inspection and repair, supplemented by sensor monitoring, as an alternative solution. | Retrofitting, reuse, and reclaiming. |
Gearbox | Lifetime estimation often relies on analyzing condition monitoring data obtained from sensors and inspections. | Damage to gear tooth and bearing through cracks. | Regular inspection for damaged parts for replacement. | Reconditioning, remanufacturing and reuse |
Pitch control system | Lifetime estimation often relies on statistical analysis of historical inspection and maintenance data. | Cracked motor shaft, fractured gear teeth and cracked bearings. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reconditioning, remanufacturing, and reuse |
Yaw system | Lifetime estimation of the yaw system is based on its functionality and the wear and tear of its parts. Assessment for functionality. | Crack in yaw drive shaft, damaged gear teeth, pitting of yaw bearing and worn out brake disc. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reconditioning, remanufacturing, and reuse |
Sensors | Lifetime assessment of sensors is based on benchmarking their data against data from similar sensors | Sensors may fail or provide incorrect readings due to poor calibration. | Regular inspection for dust, dirt and moisture. | Retrofitting |
Control and monitoring systems | Lifetime estimation of the control and monitoring software is based on expert judgment. | Aging-related faults, obsolescence | Regular update | Retrofitting |
Main frame | The remaining fatigue life of the main frame can be estimated using crack growth models. | Fatigue crack. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reuse, reclaiming |
Tower | The remaining fatigue life of the tower can be estimated using either S-N curves or crack growth models. | Fatigue crack. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reuse, reclaiming |
Foundation | The remaining fatigue life of the foundation structures can be estimated using either S-N curves or crack growth models. | Fatigue crack, corrosion, and scour. | Regular inspection and maintenance. | Reuse, reclaiming |
Type of Data | Required Information | Source of Data |
---|---|---|
Metocean data (post design and installation) | Wind speed | Sensors such as anemometers, Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) systems |
Wind direction | ||
Wave conditions | ||
Current | ||
Sea conditions | ||
Atmospheric conditions | ||
Design and modification records | OWT design criteria | Designers, OEMs, design codes, bill of materials, standard documents |
Design specifications for various OWT components | ||
CAD drawings | ||
Design life models | ||
Material specifications | ||
Engineering modifications | ||
Design regulations, standards and guidelines | ||
Environmental loading data | Vibration | Sensors such as accelerometers, strain gauges, motion sensors |
Sea loading | ||
Seismic effects | ||
Field inspection and maintenance data | Reliability levels | SCADA, maintenance records, condition monitoring systems |
Maintenance data | ||
Conditioning monitoring data | ||
Operational data | Turbine’s availability | SCADA, operational data |
Electricity production | ||
Turbine’s capacity factor | ||
Economic data | Cost of modification | Suppliers, maintenance providers, electricity market, Trade tariffs |
Cost of installation | ||
Cost of operations and maintenance | ||
Taxes | ||
Revenue accruing from sale of electricity | ||
Delayed decommission cost |
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Shafiee, M. Extending the Lifetime of Offshore Wind Turbines: Challenges and Opportunities. Energies 2024, 17, 4191. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164191
Shafiee M. Extending the Lifetime of Offshore Wind Turbines: Challenges and Opportunities. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4191. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164191
Chicago/Turabian StyleShafiee, Mahmood. 2024. "Extending the Lifetime of Offshore Wind Turbines: Challenges and Opportunities" Energies 17, no. 16: 4191. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164191