A Review on Key Technologies and Developments of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Multi-Rotor Drones
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Development and Application of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Multi-Rotor Drones
3. Research Status of Key Technologies
3.1. Lightweight Design
3.1.1. Bipolar Plates
3.1.2. High-Pressure Gas Cylinders and Hydrogen Regulators
3.2. Hydrogen Storage Methods
3.2.1. Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen Storage Methods
3.2.2. Liquid Hydrogen Storage Methods
3.2.3. Solid-State Hydrogen Storage Methods
3.2.4. Thermodynamic Properties of Different Hydrogen Storage Methods
3.3. Energy Management Strategy
3.4. Thermal Management
3.5. The Influence of Gas Humidity on PEMFC Performance
3.6. Degradation of PEMFC System
3.7. Cold Start of PEMFC System
- (1)
- External heating with air preheating
- (2)
- Electrochemical reaction self-heating by increasing startup current
- (3)
- Optimization control strategy [198]
4. Summary and Future Scope
- Optimization of hydrogen storage methods.
- 2.
- Cathode gas filtration system.
- 3.
- Auxiliary equipment.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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DMFC | PEMFC | SOFC | |
---|---|---|---|
Operating temperature/°C | <120 | <120 | 800–1000 |
Released power | <5 kW | 5–250 kW | 100–250 kW |
Type of electrolyte | Nafion membrane | Nafion membrane | Yttria stabilized zirconia |
Anode reaction | CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e− | H2 → 2H+ + 2e− | H2 + O2− → H2O + 2e− |
Cathode reaction | 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e− → 3H2O | 1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O | 1/2O2 + 2e− → O2− |
Advantages | Easy fuel storage, simple structure without thermal management | High power density, fast startup | Diversified fuel, non-noble metal for catalyst |
Disadvantages | Low power density | Low energy density of storing hydrogen at high pressure or in metal hydride | Slow startup and complex auxiliary equipments due to high operating temperature |
Name | Manufacturer | Year | FC System Power | Number of Rotors | H2 Storage Method | Flight Time | Weight of the Drone | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H2Quad-400 | EnergyOr (Montreal, QC, Canada) | 2015 | 400 W | 4 | Compressed gaseous | 133 min | 9.5 kg | [38] |
—— | Intelligent Energy (Loughborough, UK) | 2015 | 650 W | 4 | Compressed gaseous | 85 min | 4.3 kg (with a 2 L cylinder) | [66] |
Hycopter | HES (Singapore) | 2015 | —— | 4 | Compressed gaseous | 180 min | 5 kg | [40,67] |
Ranger | Zhongyu (Wuhan, China) | 2015 | 1200 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 210 min | 12.7 kg | [41] |
HYDrone-1800 | MMC (Shenzhen, China) | 2016 | 1800 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 270 min | 20 kg | [42,43] |
Jupiter-H2 | FlightWave (Santa Monica, CA, USA) | 2016 | 650 W | 8 | Compressed gaseous | ≥120 min | —— | [44] |
Sensus4 | ISS Aerospace (Berkshire, UK) | 2018 | 800 W | 4 | Compressed gaseous | 90 [email protected] kg, 30 min@6 kg | —— | [45] |
e-Drone Zero | Skycorp (Tartu, Estonia ) | 2018 | 800 W | 4 | Compressed gaseous | 120 min | —— | [48] |
Sensus6 | ISS Aerospace (Berkshire, UK) | 2019 | 2400 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 120 min@8 kg, 25 min@20 kg | —— | [46] |
Phoenix | Spectronik (Singapore) | 2019 | 2000 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 90 min | 19.0 kg (with a 9 L cylinder) | [68] |
BFD H2-6 | Ballard (Burnaby, BC, Canada) | 2019 | 1200 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 90 min | —— | [69] |
—— | Meta Vista (Seoul, South Korea) | 2019 | 800 W | 4 | Liquid | ≥720 min | —— | [51] |
DS30 | DMI (Gyeonggi-do, South Korea) | 2019 | 2700 W | 8 | Compressed gaseous | 120 min | 21.9 kg (with a 10.8 L cylinder) | [70] |
BG-200 | Nordic Unmanned (Sandnes, Norway) | 2020 | 2000 W | 8 | Compressed gaseous | 99 min | 20.7 kg (with a 7.2 L cylinder) | [50,71] |
—— | Xinyan Chuangneng (Beijing, China) | 2020 | 2000 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 331 min | (with a 19 L cylinder) | [64] |
Hydrocopter-04 | Hydrogen Craft (Huzhou, China) | 2020 | 3400 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 180 min, 150 min@lkg, 96 min@5 kg | 20 kg (with a 12 L cylinder) | [72] |
DT30X | DMI (Gyeonggi-do, South Korea) | 2023 | 2700 W | 6 | Compressed gaseous | 150 min | 21 kg (with 10.8 L Type 4 cylinder) | [73] |
Cylinder Types | Materials | Hydrogen Storage Pressure (MPa) | Mass Percent (%) | Volumetric Hydrogen Storage Density (g/L) | Service Life (a) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I | All metal | 17.5–20 | ≈1 | 14.28–17.28 | 15 |
Type II | Metal liner with hoop wrapping | 26.3–30 | ≈1.5 | 14.28–17.28 | 15 |
Type III | Metal liner with full composite wrapping | 30–70 | 2.4–4.1 | 35–40 | 15–20 |
Type IV | Plastic liner with full composite wrapping | >70 | 2.5–5.7 | 38–40 | 15–20 |
Storage System | Mass Storage Efficiency (%kg H2/kg storage) | Volumetric Storage Density (kg H2/L storage) | Gravimetric Storage Energy Density (kWh/kg) | Volumetric Storage Energy Density (kWh/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Compressed H2, 300 bars | 3.1 | 0.014 | 1.2 | 0.55 |
Compressed H2, 700 bars | 4.8 | 0.033 | 1.9 | 1.30 |
Cryogenic Liquid H2 | 14.2 | 0.043 | 5.57 | 1.68 |
Cryo-compression tank (LLNL) | 7.38 | 0.045 | 2.46 | 1.51 |
Metal hydride (conservative) | 0.65 | 0.028 | 0.26 | 1.12 |
Strategies | Suitable Missions | Mission Risk |
---|---|---|
Rule-based EMS | Suitable for scenarios characterized by relatively stable mission requirements and infrequent load fluctuations, such as fixed-route cruising and stationary monitoring. | The mission risk is relatively low. These strategies are easy to implement and require less computational power, but they may not be able to cope with sudden high power demands or extreme load fluctuations. |
Optimization-based EMS | Suitable for scenarios that require efficient energy utilization and complex missions, such as long-duration multi-stage missions, reconnaissance, and surveillance in complex urban environments. | The mission risk is moderately high. These strategies can optimize energy allocation and improve overall efficiency, but they have a higher computational complexity, requiring certain system performance and real-time requirements, as well as being sensitive to initial conditions and parameter settings. |
Intelligent-based EMS | Suitable for highly dynamic and uncertain missions, such as independent exploration and search and rescue in complex terrain environments. | The missions carry high risks. These strategies possess strong adaptability and learning capabilities, enabling them to cope with complex environmental changes and mission requirements. However, they require a large amount of training data and computational resources, and may suffer from overfitting and poor generalization abilities. |
Degradation Types | Degradation Mechanisms | Mitigation Measures |
---|---|---|
Proton exchange membrane degradation |
|
|
Catalyst layer degradation |
|
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Gas diffusion layer (GDL) dagradation |
|
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Overall system design |
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Shen, Z.; Liu, S.; Zhu, W.; Ren, D.; Xu, Q.; Feng, Y. A Review on Key Technologies and Developments of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Multi-Rotor Drones. Energies 2024, 17, 4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164193
Shen Z, Liu S, Zhu W, Ren D, Xu Q, Feng Y. A Review on Key Technologies and Developments of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Multi-Rotor Drones. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164193
Chicago/Turabian StyleShen, Zenan, Shaoquan Liu, Wei Zhu, Daoyuan Ren, Qiang Xu, and Yu Feng. 2024. "A Review on Key Technologies and Developments of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Multi-Rotor Drones" Energies 17, no. 16: 4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164193