A Comprehensive Analysis of Power Electromobility: Challenges from a PESTLE Perspective

Abstract

This study analyses aspects related to the electromobility transition. Emerging technologies have enabled the production and commercialisation of electric vehicles to reduce polluting emissions. However, significant obstacles are present in this global transition. The analysis identifies that public policies play a crucial role in the development of electromobility, and emphasises how new business models in electromobility are emerging to satisfy changing customer demands. Concerns related to raw materials extraction, battery disposal, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration are also important to consider. The relationship between technologically advanced countries and raw material-producing nations must balance socioeconomic, historical, labour, and ecological factors. In order to have a standard reference, this study considers for the analysis the political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal factors (PESTLE). An analysis of future scenarios considering pessimistic and optimistic trends revealed that, compared with the actual trends, important actions must be taken to develop electromobility not only from the technological aspect. These results provide a comprehensive analysis of electromobility sustainability and its importance for multidisciplinary stakeholders related to the actual challenges towards electromobility, the electric network capabilities, and the importance of creating new jobs and products based on a circular and sustainable economy.

1. Introduction

With approximately 14.1 million electric vehicles (EVs) sold in 2023 [1], the electromobility transition faces a complex interaction between multiple factors related to the transportation requirements of every geographic and economic region, including its physical infrastructure, socioeconomic resources, and many other components. It is expected that 30% of cars will be electric by 2032, worldwide [2], with a battery price close to USD 75.1 per kWhr by 2030 [3]. Given that the triple helix concept has been successfully used in different technological fields, its degree of involvement may be one of the primary factors influencing electromobility [4]. This model requires collaboration among the government, academia, and industry, and its application can have a significant influence during the electromobility transition. The shift to electromobility encounters important obstacles for less developed countries [5]. Reducing the emissions of polluting gases from internal combustion engines (ICEs) can be considered an advantage for electromobility. Physical and environmental conditions, as well as prevailing socioeconomic factors, can be highly variable factors that ultimately influence the implementation of electromobility. Electric vehicles (EVs) may not always reduce contaminant emissions, especially in areas with a grid that relies primarily on fossil fuels compared to regions with more renewable energy generation systems [6]. Economic considerations, social shifts, and technological advancements have created commercial electric vehicles that can meet everyday urban transportation needs while producing fewer damaging pollutants than conventional ICEs [7]. The shift to electromobility worldwide represents an important step in reducing atmospheric contamination because technological development is a key factor for making reliable EVs compared to ICEs [8]. These challenges, in turn, require the development of an infrastructure that allows their integration into urban areas because its current construction is designed for ICE vehicles [9]. Conversely, major socioeconomic issues must be resolved to pay for the expenses required for this change and encourage society to embrace EVs [10]. These include that some EV models are more expensive than some of the traditional ICE automobiles, the infrastructure required for charging must be adapted, and government incentives must be promoted [11]. Some countries have to deal with concerns about the availability and affordability of electricity. To achieve better social acceptance and adoption of electromobility, public education about the economic benefits and environmental advantages of adopting this technology must be promoted [12]. Given that the demands and objectives of modern society are connected to technical improvements, such as real-time communication, the six zero goals, and the improvement of safety features, a fundamental global transition towards electromobility is arising [13]. The traditional gas refuelling model is being redefined as commercial EVs are integrated into residential charging systems [14]. With this change, the conventional model of localised gas stations is gradually replaced by distributed and decentralised systems [15]. The user experience throughout the charging process is affected by this change; for instance, a plug-in charging device might significantly impact the acceptance of EVs compared to a distant charging station [16]. This work discusses some of the above aspects of the electromobility transition as these technical issues are related to socioeconomic development. The challenges represented in this transition indicate that it is not a homogeneous process throughout the world but shows that each region presents particular challenges.

2. Methodology

The development of this work started with establishing the initial statement to find answers to the following question: What are the challenges related towards electromobility? This question involves a comprehensive, highly complex answer that can be extended to different branches. To establish a suitable limit, a systematic search of scientific articles was considered to discuss these topics under the PESTLE framework because it allows observing the important elements related to this initial question. As a reference, the work of [17] analyses the implications of digitalisation in Industry 4.0, a concept that is a fundamental part of the transition processes towards electromobility. Our research mainly focused on identifying scientific articles on the SCOPUS platform, which allows gathering and displaying information based on different criteria, applying exclusion criteria, and performing information analysis [18]. The initial keyword was “electromobility”, and the search returned 2874 documents. Concerning the document type, the search was limited to articles and reviews; these exclusion criteria produced a total of 1965 documents. The excluded subject areas were as follows: Veterinary, Dentistry, Health Professions, Arts and Humanities, Psychology, Nursing, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Neuroscience, Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics, Immunology and Microbiology, Physics and Astronomy, Medicine, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology. These excluded areas produced a total of 852 documents. Finally, the search period was considered from 2015 to 2025; these criteria produced a total of 782 documents. Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 were obtained from the SCOPUS website. In this case, Figure 1 shows the distribution of documents by year. A constant increment is observed, especially from the year 2017.

Germany and Poland were identified as the countries with the largest number of documents generated, as shown in Figure 2.

Engineering and energy subject areas have the highest number of documents, with 28.6% and 19.9% respectively, followed by mathematics, social sciences and environmental sciences.

Figure 4 shows the co-occurrence map related to “electromobility” obtained with the VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20). It highlights a close relationship with sustainability, charging infrastructure, and public transportation.

3. Challenges Under the PESTLE Perspective

3.1. Political Challenges

At an initial stage, it is relatively easy to understand the importance of the transition towards more environmentally friendly modes of transport. However, at a higher level, within the context of public policy-making, the challenge requires identifying on a more technical level the repercussions of neglecting this transition: on the one hand, data collection; on the other, the assimilation of this data within public policy-making, as mentioned in [19]. In this context, a significant weakness is the uncertainty surrounding data collection and the validation of health impact studies. Another important political element is that in many countries, political parties represent interests related to environmental benefits, which can significantly influence the preferences of vehicle owners or prospective owners, as described in [20]. The main disadvantage is that this trend can generate pushback from political groups with opposing interests. Thus, public policies must find a balance between vehicle owners’ preferences, environmental benefits, and subsidies. The disadvantage is that subsidies are not always advantageous. They may benefit buyers, but if manufacturers do not receive incentives for development, an imbalance can arise between the two components. The resulting gap lies between customer behaviour, technology development, and infrastructure investment, the latter being the main disadvantage in some countries [21]. The challenge of policy-making faces the situation of shaping public perception regarding electromobility, especially under the scheme of geo-political rivalry, because the extraction of critical minerals generates the disadvantage of having a disputed metal in territories that may suffer alteration of biodiversity and may generate impacts on the settlements of indigenous human groups [22]. The decisions of federal governments can often encounter obstacles in local governments to carry out various tasks of modifying policies regarding mining due to the various components that are related, which can represent a risk to ensure a constant productive chain [23].

In some countries, regulations have been established on using ICEs; when pollution levels have exceeded permissible limits, vehicle circulation is limited, for example, based on the number of registered plates or the age of the vehicle in such a way that there is balanced participation of users that reduces the number of ICE cars in operation during these environmental contingencies [24]. These efforts are implemented when weather conditions do not allow the dispersion of pollutants, and the contingency periods can be extended for several days [25]. In a chained manner, these contingency periods limit the mobility of people to carry out their daily activities and represent, for many of them, direct economic losses [26]. Highly developed countries have made progress in expanding public and private EV charging stations to address this challenge. In less-developed countries, the charging infrastructure is still limited due to the high cost of deployment [27]. Strategic investment in public transit electrification can help reduce emissions while mitigating traffic congestion. Stringent safety regulations, improved grid capacity, and implementation of smart grids can also help as EV adoption increases [28].

Public policies must consider modernising the electrical grid infrastructure across urban and rural areas and address the grid capacity posed by the increasing adoption of EVs [29]. Despite the potential benefits, governments face multifaceted challenges in navigating this complex technological shift; for example, balancing the stringency and pace of regulations with industry innovation is required to avoid stifling growth. Upgrading existing public transit systems for electromobility transition requires substantial financial outlays and often overcoming logistical hurdles in ageing infrastructure. On the other hand, the import, export, and regulatory frameworks for electric cars still have issues to solve. The infrastructure and logistics required to support the global supply chain for EVs have not yet achieved the same optimisation and maturity as those for ICEs, limiting the economies of scale and cost advantages that can be achieved [30].

3.2. Economic Challenges

The performance achieved by EVs, combined with the environmental benefits of reduced emissions, makes electromobility an attractive option for transportation financing [31]. Creating new job opportunities in the maintenance, operation, and supply chain for electromobility infrastructure can also stimulate economic growth in this sector. Developing a robust electromobility ecosystem will require skilled workers to install, maintain, and manage the charging stations, grid integration systems, and associated supply chains. It can create many new jobs, from electrical engineers and technicians to logistics and customer service roles. As the adoption of EVs increases, the demand for this specialised workforce will grow, providing employment opportunities and boosting the local economy through increased incomes and tax revenues [32]. Another economic benefit is the potential for new service-oriented business models that can take advantage of the unique characteristics of electromobility, such as the ability to provide charging and other services through a network of charging stations [33]. The previous condition will result in better control over the financing performance processes. Digital electrification systems will allow the return on investment produced by charging stations to be calculated more accurately. Consequently, there will be greater accuracy in EVs’ performance calculations from the perspective of accounting assets [34]. The transition to electromobility presents a compelling opportunity for economic revitalisation, fostering growth across multiple sectors.

As production scales up and technologies mature, electric vehicle prices are expected to decline, enhancing affordability and accessibility for consumers. This shift creates new business models and employment opportunities also in battery production, charging infrastructure development, and software solutions for smart grids and fleet management. The transition fosters a burgeoning digital economy, with data analytics and software playing increasingly critical roles in optimising charging patterns, grid management, and vehicle performance. The reduced EV maintenance requirements can achieve long-term cost savings compared to ICEs [35]. The electromobility transition unfolds unevenly globally, with stark disparities between developed and developing countries shaping its trajectory. Developing countries face significant challenges, including limited access to technology, inadequate charging infrastructure, and a lack of financial resources. Institutional capacity and political stability are important in order to implement supportive policies and regulations and the deployment of large-scale infrastructure projects; for these reasons, capital expenditure (CapEx) and operating expense (OpEx) calculations could differ between developing and developed countries and require international collaborations [36]. Governments and industry stakeholders must also collaborate to develop comprehensive workforce training programs to provide individuals with the adapted knowledge required for the corresponding needs of the electromobility economy [37].

The entrepreneurial sector can represent the key element for executing the electromobility transition, as it brings dynamism and innovation to the transportation industry. Startups and established firms are creating new jobs across various fields, including battery technology, charging infrastructure development, and software solutions for smart grids and fleet management. Novel business models, such as battery-as-a-service and peer-to-peer charging platforms, are emerging to address evolving consumer needs and resource optimisation. This entrepreneurial energy fosters a competitive environment that drives down costs and accelerates technological advancements [38]. The electromobility transition is witnessing a dynamic interaction between agile startups and established automotive giants, each bringing unique strengths and challenges. Startups, unburdened by legacy infrastructure and often driven by disruptive innovation, are at the forefront of developing novel technologies, particularly in areas like battery chemistry, charging solutions, and software-defined vehicle platforms. They can quickly iterate and introduce new concepts to the market and comply with accepted industrial standards. Established companies possess significant manufacturing capacity and distribution network advantages, but startups often drive initial innovations [39]. Electromobility presents significant challenges for the economic sector because of the required reconfiguration of the jobs related to the traditional manufacturing and supply chain structure [40]. The existing grid infrastructure faces significant challenges adapting to renewable energy sources because it needs sophisticated grid management strategies to ensure stability and reliability as EV charging loads increase. Upgrading transformers, substations, transmission lines, and distribution networks to handle peak demand periods requires substantial financial investments.

Battery prices can be a pivotal factor influencing the electromobility transition. The high cost of batteries has been a significant barrier to extending EV adoption, making them less competitive than traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. Recently, a decline in battery prices has been observed, driven by technological advancements, economies of scale in manufacturing, and increased competition within the industry. This downward trend in battery prices makes electric vehicles increasingly affordable, contributing to a surge in demand and accelerating the shift towards electromobility [41]. Despite the initial price, EVs often have lower operating and maintenance costs than traditional ICEs [42]. The battery industry fosters economic growth and job creation, stimulating innovation in material science, manufacturing processes, and recycling technologies [43].

3.3. Social Challenges

Society has developed the habit of moving their vehicles to gas charging stations, carrying the scheduling adaptation of daily life activities. Although there are still different technological and regulatory challenges, the number and availability of residential electric sockets in urban areas is much greater than the number of gas stations. The potential for EVs can be strongly enhanced due to portable charging units allowing the residential electrical grid to charge EVs [44,45]. Most people who travel to their workplaces must leave their vehicles parked throughout their working hours and keep their cars parked until departure. In the case of EVs, this time can be used to charge, and travelling to a charging centre would not be necessary, saving time and reducing travel distance [46]. This change can influence a social transformation, particularly in enhancing public health and promoting social equity. Electric vehicles offer an advantage due to their low emissions, reducing respiratory illnesses and improving overall well-being, especially in vulnerable populations. Ensuring equitable access to affordable electricity and charging infrastructure across all demographics remains critical, from densely populated urban centres to remote rural communities, and finds more complicated scenarios in less developed countries [47].

Government incentives and subsidies promoting EV adoption can make electric transportation more accessible to lower-income communities, fostering social inclusion [48]. The affordability of electric vehicles can represent an important difference in transportation access. The transition needs proactive workforce development initiatives to ensure a fair transition for employees in conventional automotive industries and provide them with the skills required for new positions in the electromobility industry. Equitable deployment of charging infrastructure is convenient to provide affordable access for all communities, regardless of income level or geographic location [49,50]. However, the limits of the actual charging network and the EV prices can make consumers hesitant to switch, or move away from the convenience and familiarity of ICE and the established refuelling infrastructure [51].

3.4. Technological Challenges

An important precedent related to the challenges of electromobility can be observed in the work of [52]. The work focuses on a significant technological challenge related to the post-life of EV batteries. When an EV’s useful life ends, some of its components can be reused for alternative functions, and the transition to electromobility must consider not only the beginning of the transition but also the other post-life processes of EV components. Electric current distribution technologies are gradually changing due to the shift to electromobility and the need to incorporate renewable energy resources. The need to have charging centres for EVs represents the possibility of renewing some of their electrical networks for many urban areas. Within this change, a complex energy management system must be created [53]. This need means that an advanced decision-making system is required, in addition to having the capacity to manage large amounts of data in real time [54]. Consumer concerns about range anxiety and the convenience of refuelling will be reduced with the advancement of battery technology and intelligent charging capabilities. Intelligent grid management can optimise charging patterns to reduce energy infrastructure stress and maximise the use of renewable energies. This transition also fosters new manufacturing opportunities, requiring skilled labour in battery production, software management, power electronics, and charging infrastructure installation [55].

Due to the kinds of batteries available in the past, electric motor technology faced constraints in its ability to supply steady power for long-distance travel. Technological developments in current battery technologies and automated manufacturing processes have allowed the development of an engine-battery combination that can offer performance capabilities. Battery development has reached sufficient confidence to cover the typical distances travelled by current vehicles [56]. Ensuring battery safety and longevity requires ongoing research, development of robust thermal management systems and degradation mitigation strategies. Extensive adoption also depends on a trained workforce, which requires selected education and training programs to give people the technical know-how needed for EV production, maintenance, and grid management [57].

Grid capacity and renewable energy integration to support EV adoption is another major challenge facing the expansion of electromobility because the additional load they place on the electric grid could potentially exceed the grid’s capacity in some regions, especially during peak demand periods [58]. As the power grids in many cases were not originally designed for EV adoption, challenges in the electric grid are added to the current ones. Integrating smart grid technologies and dynamic pricing mechanisms can incentivise off-peak charging, thereby mitigating strain on the grid and potentially reducing electricity costs for residential and industrial consumers. The analysis presented in [54] shows a clear growth trend in EV registration, which indicates the potential for increased load on the network.

If not adequately managed, the mismatch between the grid’s capacity and the growing EV-related electricity demand could lead to grid instability, voltage fluctuations, and potentially widespread blackouts [59,60]. The random nature of load conditions can generate highly complex problems. Stochastic optimisation techniques can help find solutions that address various objectives in addition to technical considerations and in which electricity prices are directly linked [61,62].

EVs can have significantly lower fuel costs per mile than ICE counterparts, as electricity is generally less expensive than gasoline or diesel [63]. In ICEs, mechanical wear is influenced by factors such as lubricants, fuel octane, route characteristics, asphalt conditions, and the magnitude of the load being transported. Many of these factors can be more precisely monitored in today’s electric vehicles (EVs). The operation of ICEs must balance the interaction between different types of physics, such as thermodynamics and materials science [64]. This interaction ultimately translates into invoices for parts and maintenance services costs. EVs drastically reduce these components, and the torque exerted depends more on other measurable factors, such as current consumption [65].

Another technical challenge is identifying the battery’s state of health (SOH) to evaluate its performance and durability. Several methods can be employed based on assembly models, neural network models, and optimisation through heuristic algorithms, enabling even real-time performance monitoring. Similarly, some techniques enable sophisticated battery management systems (BMS) to predict the energy capacity and state of charge (SOC) to maintain balanced charge levels, optimise their performance, and extend durability [66]. Despite technological advancements in battery development, technological gaps remain, such as the need for solid-state and lithium-sulfur batteries for large-scale manufacturing. Novel materials in the environment must also be considered, along with tests that ensure their quality and safety, manufacturing costs, and recycling of their chemicals.

3.5. Environmental Challenges

The shift towards electromobility offers significant potential for mitigating the transportation sector’s environmental impact, particularly in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Electric vehicles, primarily when powered by renewable energy sources, could produce reduced tailpipe emissions and drive innovation in recycling and battery technology [67]. Given that most travel happens within a short range, the ability to cover most daily driving needs with EVs demonstrates electromobility’s potential to reduce environmental impacts [68]. Another characteristic of electromobility is its emphasis on noise reduction, particularly in areas with the most significant vehicle congestion. During peak hours or when traffic is most concentrated, increased noise levels caused by ICEs are typical. In this aspect, EVs provide lower noise emissions, creating other pedestrian safety concerns [69,70].

Realising electromobility’s full ecological benefits requires careful consideration of its potential drawbacks. The extraction of raw materials for batteries, including lithium or cobalt, raises concerns regarding habitat effects, water resources, and indirect contamination. The transition demands robust recycling and waste treatment infrastructure to mitigate the environmental impact [71].

3.6. Legal Challenges

Implementing legal instruments that allow the adoption of more environmentally friendly transportation technologies poses several significant challenges, beginning with transferring technologies between developers and marketers, especially from different countries. One of the main legal gaps relates to specific global climate change legislation towards net-zero emissions by 2050 [72]. A significant gap is the identification of responsibilities regarding the materials or products generated during the extraction of raw materials and when the EV reaches the end of its useful life, especially for batteries, due to the special disposal or reuse conditions required by the minerals used for their manufacture. The main disadvantage may be the financial viability of implementing recovery and recycling processes [73]. Another important gap is related to the generation of recycling methods with international standards [74]. Various governance initiatives related to the generation of battery minerals are currently being developed worldwide. The situation is complex due to international legal implications, especially concerning extraction. One solution is to establish transnational initiatives that allow, among other things, for monitoring mining practices involving all stakeholders. This complexity implies a significant gap due to the fragility of ecosystems and their communities [75].

Table 1. Analysis of related case studies for each factor.

PESTLE Factor	Analysis	Reference
Political	In Norway, the rapid adoption of electric vehicles has been facilitated by three key elements: improved infrastructure planning, government assistance, and financial incentives.	[76]
Economic	Commercial fleet purchasing decisions are influenced by economic considerations, including government subsidies, electricity costs, and battery price reductions.	[77]
Social	In order to investigate elements such as “range anxiety,” the availability of charging stations, peer pressure, and the perception of EVs as a status symbol, sociological data analysis is necessary to comprehend public perceptions regarding EVs.	[78,79]
Technological	People should be able to recognise how well batteries work in practical situations, how long they take to charge, if smart charging systems (V2Gs) are developed, or whether electric motor efficiency has increased.	[80,81]
Legal	Explains the significance of particular laws and rules that influence the uptake and functioning of electromobility required to make charging accessible in residential environments.	[82]
Environmental	The environmental benefits must be quantified not only from the reduction in emissions but also considering the effects from raw material extraction to the final disposal or recycling.	[83]

shows the analysis of a related case study for each PESTLE factor. The importance of public policies was observed as a decisive factor not only in promoting electromobility but also in increasing public confidence and acceptance of this technology, alongside the development of legal regulations.

Table 2. PESTLE factors interrelationships.

Interrelationships	The Related Case of Analysis	Reference
Political and economical	Lack of comprehensive legislation to enhance commercial opportunities in electromobility.	[84]
Technological and Social	Importance of social media in educational content related to electromobility.	[85]
Environmental and Legal	An environmental impact assessment is required before the implementation of new transportation technologies.	[86]
Political and Legal	Legal framework and standardisation of charging points and the handling of batteries are required, as well as a well-defined electromobility strategy.	[87]
Economic and technological	Innovations in lithium-ion batteries and grid energy storage can lead to cost reductions and improved efficiency.	[88]
Social and environmental	Sustainable and responsible raw material extraction.	[86]

shows the interrelationship between PESTLE factors. In this case, the central objective of improving environmental conditions involves gradual modifications of the political and legal conditions. The significant challenge in this interrelationship is also the time it takes to assimilate these factors and their socioeconomic context. In some countries, electromobility with small vehicles is already an everyday reality, while in others, conditions and regulations have more control over this transition.

4. Case Studies of Electromobility Implementation

During the transition to electromobility, less developed economies encounter more challenging obstacles and require extended implementation periods if they have more complicated legislative changes and procedures. A digital economy and the availability of digitalised government services are essential facilitators of this shift. This section presents case examples illustrating the experiences and advancements of adopting electromobility in less developed and developed countries.

4.1. Electromobility in Less Developed Countries

Africa encompasses a vast and variable region composed of many nations. Significant investment in power grid infrastructure and the development of renewable energy sources would likely support the growth of electromobility in these regions while reducing emissions and promoting more sustainable transportation. An important context is related to the distances between some African countries, which is a significant challenge in logistics and supply chain management. Numerous elements are involved in the electrification of this continent, such as the political context of each African nation [89].

Another significant obstacle is the extraction of natural resources in Latin America. These resource-based economies often experience uneven development. At the same time, the broader population faces adverse social and environmental impacts caused by these processes. This legacy of resource extraction has created significant barriers to adopting renewable energy technologies. Public transportation systems are prevalent in many Latin American cities, but are often ineffective during peak usage. The growth of the digital economy, maritime navigation communication, and the increased availability of alternative energy sources offer potential pathways to help address these challenges [90]. Figure 5 illustrates the cause-and-effect aspects of the obstacles presented in developing countries for the electromobility transition.

4.2. Electromobility in Developed Countries

The work of [91] highlights how China’s EV industry has been a fascinating case within the broader context of green technological development. The article notes that new green technologies have created significant opportunities for Chinese firms to acquire advanced technological capabilities and substantially enhance their competitive advantages. China’s extensive experience developing its industrial capacity and expanding its international trade networks has given it a significant competitive advantage. The country’s robust manufacturing base and well-established trade relationships enabled it to increase competitiveness in the green technology sector. Electromobility development in China was enhanced by combined strategic policies, environmental regulations and ambitious incentive programs. Policy-driven support for domestic demand has been critical in the accelerated progress and growth [92].

The vision of electromobility in Scandinavia presents a more balanced relationship between government policies and business development, facilitating the transition to electromobility. The Norwegian government has implemented comprehensive incentives and regulations that have effectively aligned the objectives and interests of various stakeholders, including consumers, automakers, and infrastructure providers. Strategic investments in charging infrastructure and the power grid have helped ensure the necessary supporting systems for electromobility. The synergistic relationship between policy initiatives and business development has been a critical factor in Norway’s successful transition towards sustainable transportation [93]. The development of electromobility technology and its application in Scandinavia face challenges beyond technical advancements. There are also complex issues surrounding the management of mobility models and their integration with the digital economy. For instance, the transition to EVs requires careful coordination between policies, consumer behaviour, and the supporting infrastructure. Raw materials required for the growth of electromobility pose significant challenges. In Sweden, extracting and transforming these critical raw materials is a considerable challenge and requires further attention [94]. Across the world, the automotive industry’s transition to electromobility also requires improving waste management and recycling strategies. When the EVs end their useful life, they must properly handle substantial production of metals and alloys. Developing effective circular economy approaches to reuse and repurpose these materials could unlock new opportunities and contribute to a more sustainable mobility ecosystem [95].

According to [96], Denmark and Germany actively incentivise using EVs to promote sustainable commercial transportation models. Commercial transportation in these regions can be closely monitored and analysed to gather detailed data on various operational characteristics, such as routes, loading patterns, distances travelled, and work schedules. By understanding the needs of commercial fleets, policymakers and industry stakeholders can implement tailored incentives, infrastructure investments, and operational strategies to facilitate a seamless transition to electromobility in these sectors. This sustainability is particularly evident when the energy used to recharge EVs is generated from renewable energy sources, creating a more environmentally friendly energy cycle by aligning policies and incentives to encourage the adoption of electric cars and reduce gas emissions caused by the commercial transportation sectors [97].

In Australia, decarbonisation presents an important priority. Adopting EVs is a critical component of this broader plan, which seeks to balance the ethical sourcing of battery materials with the need for sustainable industrial development. The Australian government is implementing policies and incentives to promote the uptake of EVs while ensuring that the supply chain for battery materials adheres to rigorous environmental and social standards [98]. Figure 6 illustrates the cause-and-effect aspects of the obstacles presented in developed countries for the electromobility transition.

Worldwide stakeholders face challenges in various domains with implications that can have positive and negative consequences. For instance, the strain on energy grids due to increased electricity demand from charging stations may require substantial investments in grid infrastructure upgrades, which could have significant cost implications for utility companies and consumers. Likewise, the transition to electric vehicles may require policy changes and incentives to support adopting this technology, which could involve complex negotiations and trade-offs among governments, industries, and the public.

4.3. Challenges in Electromobility Planning up to 2050

Table 3. Expected achievements towards net zero 2050.

Region	2025–2050 Acceleration	2030–2035 Masificación	2035–2040 Integration	2040–2050 Emerging Technologies	Ref.
Europe	>50% sales	>80% sales	Intelligent V2G	100% electric fleets	[80,99,100]
China/Asia	>60% sales	14–16 TWh battery stock	Development of supply chains	<70 USD/kWh battery cost	[99,101]
USA/Canada	~40% sales	~32% vehicle stock	Charging infrastructure standardisation	Light transport decarbonisation	[102,103]
LatAm	10–20% sales	Increase in local projects	Asequible EVs	Local fabrication and recycling	[104,105]
Africa/SEA	~5% sales	Increase in public and private projects	International investment benefits	Microgrid integration	[106,107]

presents the expected achievements for each economic region up to the year 2050 (net zero). These values and facts represent a set of multidisciplinary challenges, since reducing polluting emissions is linked to education, technological development, and economic development, among others. These elements require significant work in global social development within the context of social networks and an understanding of the specific needs of each economic region.

5. Analysis of Future Scenarios

5.1. Methodology of the Scenario Definition

The scenario is defined by considering the historical information presented in reference [108]; this graph shows a growth trend in new electric vehicle registrations in Europe until 2023. The trend can be considered for three scenarios: (a) maintaining the trend or unchanged, (b) a pessimistic scenario, and (c) an optimistic scenario. The pessimistic scenario would indicate a decline in the trend, while the optimistic scenario would refer to an increase in EV registrations. The objective of analysing these scenarios is to identify situations that could occur in each of the 10 categories previously analysed. The main objective of this analysis is to identify possible consequences that may arise in each of the observed areas. These consequences have been limited to the use of simplified rating elements in which an increase, decrease, or unchanged trend in the analysed situation can be identified. This, in turn, may impact other chained elements, but no further elements are considered to limit the scope of the analysis. The analysis method was based on the information gathered during the investigation, and a cause-effect relationship was established between the analysed variables, which corresponded to the elements described in Section 3.

5.2. Results

As observed in

Table 4. Results of the scenario analysis.

Variables		Trends
	Unchanged	Optimistic	Pessimistic
Political Updated regulations for emission measurements, mobility restrictions and charging infrastructure	Irregular data storage and analysis. Increase in traffic congestion. Concentrated EV adoption in urban regions.	Increment in data analysis. An increase in user confidence.	An increase in lawbreaking. Limited EV travelling distances.
Economical Infrastructure expansion, logistics, and compliance costs	Investment and technology development focused on established companies. The import of electric cars and battery development plants.	Job migrations. Adoption of renewable energy technologies. New energy business models. Increase in assembly plants.	Increment in EV manufacturing cost. Extended production time. Extended time for return on investment (ROI).
Market uncertainty, EV prices, adoption incentives, and Import fees	Increased uncertainty. Limited EV access. Increased risk investment. Dependence on import and export taxes.	Increased access to EVs. Increased investments in EV research and development. Development of new companies. Increment in investment options.	Increase in business mortality. Reduced interest of buyers Increment in EV prices. Reduced number of charging stations.
Social EV technology acceptance, public health and social equity	Mistrust caused by uneven attention to infrastructure development increased mobility options in the country.	Accelerated adoption of charging schedules, new jobs, noise reduction, reduction in demand for gasoline.	Distrust increment for EV adoption concerning ICEs Social distrust concerning raw material extraction.
Technological Development and integration of smart grid technologies for charging infrastructure	Development depends on the country’s investment. Limited flow of the circular economy. Complex infrastructure upgrade for developing countries.	Accelerated development of EV technology. Increment in battery life. Reconfiguration of electric grids.	Limited development of EV charging technology. Longer charging times and increased charge demands. Irregular technology development. Use of EVs in limited regions.
Peak demand, dynamic pricing and grid maintenance	Peak demands depend on vehicle sales. Cable wear. Variable electricity demand. Infrastructure development for peak demands.	Load demand prevention. Fair prices.	Failure of electric grids due to lack of robustness Accelerated grid system and loss control. Increase in electricity prices.
Durability, Charging time Maintenance savings Economy of scale Cost savings	Increments in battery degradation. Increased need for battery treatment. Reduced manufacturing costs.	Increased charge endurance. Treatment methods for battery reconditioning.	Increment in waste materials and unusable batteries. Increment in waste storage regions.
Legal Legal instruments between developers and marketers, raw materials extraction	Increment in trading and manufacturing times and reduction in investment interest.	Reduction in cost and increased innovation.	Discouragement of development and loss of investments.
Ecological Water, Sustainable manufacturing, Resource optimisation Recycling and hazardous materials treatment	Reduction in safe drinking water resources. Soil contamination in non-protected regions. Toxic gas emission. Exposure to hazardous substances. Limited options for recycling methods and infrastructure	Reconditioned water sources. Development of rare earth extraction technologies and treatments. Recycling of waste materials.	Elimination of water resources. Affectation of natural ecosystems. Soil and water contamination expansion. Public health interventions. Reduced options for recycling infrastructure.

, the unchanged trend, investment in technology continues to favour developed regions. The optimistic scenario highlights rapid technology growth, increasing battery life, and modernising electrical grids. The pessimistic scenario suggests slow growth, continued dependence on the electrical grid, and limited energy infrastructure.

5.3. Electromobility Roadmap

Figure 7 shows the electromobility roadmap towards 2050. The roadmap groups three main periods: the first from 2025 to 2032, the second until 2040, and finally until 2050. The challenges related to this development over the years are located in the lower right side of the figure.

V2G integration, together with total recycling systems, is one of the most important challenging achievements towards net-zero emissions. Despite the importance of political and socio-economic development, the implementation of optimisation algorithms and AI for energy generation, prediction and management can be considered as one of the most influential technological components to support this development.

5.4. Identified Gaps

Considering the identified gaps from an initial stage towards an optimal or desired situation in the electromobility transition,

Table 5. Identified gaps for each characteristic.

Characteristic	Initial Stage	Identified Gap	Ideal Circumstance
Political	Limited EV regulations and high emissions	Invest in electrification and charging networks	Sustainable transportation with reduced emissions
Economic	Limited EV adoption and job opportunities	Develop electromobility infrastructure and workforce	Increased jobs and economic revitalisation
Social	EV acceptability and access	Implement social education and workforce programs	Universal access to electric mobility
Technological	Overloaded electric grid during peak demand	Implement smart grids and dynamic pricing	An efficient and resilient electric grid system
	Limited EV infrastructure and technology	Develop advanced energy management systems	Robust EV Infrastructure
	High battery costs	Reduce battery prices through technological advancements	EV adoption and affordability
Legal	Limited legal instruments for EV transition	International legal instruments for raw material extraction, transformation, commercialisation and recycling	International framework for EV adoption worldwide
Environmental	ICE vehicles dominate transportation	Shift to electric vehicles powered by renewables	Reduced emissions and noise pollution

includes a list synthesising these analysed characteristics.

6. Discussion

The presented examples indicate that the transition towards electromobility has been successful in certain regions, particularly concerning the technological advancements that have enabled wider adoption. The transition also presents other complex challenges in different parts of the world, primarily related to the ethical extraction of raw materials and electric grid capacity. These issues highlight the need for a more holistic and balanced approach that aligns public policies, government initiatives, and business development. Public policies and government decisions play a crucial role in fostering this balanced development by implementing incentives, regulations, and strategic investments to coordinate the interests and objectives of various stakeholders, including consumers, automakers, infrastructure providers, and the mining and recycling industries. A comprehensive strategy integrating the technological, legislative, and circular economy facets during the electromobility transition is needed to recognise the full sustainability advantages of this shift [109]. Due to the complexity of the scenarios and variables involved in the transition to electromobility, the implementation of AI and stochastic decision-making algorithms represents an alternative for conducting more in-depth analyses of future trends. However, developing solution evaluations requires the availability of statistical data in many areas of science and technology to generate more reliable learning algorithms and, thus, find more appropriate solutions for society. In many countries, the inclusion of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles is a reality that has exceeded many commercial expectations. The great need for transportation in urban areas, combined with population growth, has accelerated their use. Many short-distance commutes are made with these types of vehicles, creating a growing market for their replacement parts. Thus, society is rapidly adopting the concepts associated with electromobility. This adoption also includes the fact that these vehicles take up little space and can be stored at home, and this is another key element, since the availability of parking spaces is linked in many urban areas with security or the risk of vehicle theft. This demonstrates how society has reacted to the use of this technology.

7. Conclusions

This study identified the main challenges facing the transition to electromobility. This transition has different challenges depending on the economic region. The examples mentioned showed that public policies primarily influence electromobility development and depend on socioeconomic interests and long-term objectives. Within these arguments, the importance of adequate development of the electrical network and its management systems that consider V2G technology was identified. For this purpose, the government has an essential role in encouraging companies to develop standards for electromobility. The importance of generating new jobs based on the circular, digital and sustainable economy will improve the flow of investments by integrating technologies such as Big Data and Smart Charging Solutions. On the operational side, EVs present a promising future in which artificial intelligence tools will allow resources to be optimised, improve traffic and increase safety indices for passengers and pedestrians. It was observed that this transition represents an important opportunity for developing decision-making algorithms under highly complex scenarios, not only for the engineering areas but also for including different societal and global economic factors. On the other hand, despite the goals toward net-zero emissions by 2050, society is reacting rapidly in urban areas and has adopted the use of two- and three-wheeled electric vehicles to cover daily local routes, demonstrating their immediate benefits and the urgent need for traffic regulations that improve the safety of users and pedestrians. The cost, mobility, and availability of these types of vehicles compared to four-wheelers are the factors that represent their accelerated adoption to cover those short distances, thereby rethinking the concept of motor transport and the need to increase urban safety conditions.