Next Article in Journal
Price Behavior and Market Integration in European Union Electricity Markets: A VECM Analysis
Previous Article in Journal
Enhanced Control Strategies for Improving Low Fault Ride-Through Capability of Grid-Connected Doubly Fed Induction Wind Turbines
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Energies
Volume 18
Issue 4
10.3390/en18040769
energies-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Current Research Status and Prospects of Electrode Boilers Under the Background of the “Dual Carbon” Goals

by
Zheng Zhao
1,
Rui Hu
2,
Yu Zhang
1,*,
Heming Dong
1,3 and
Qian Du
1
1
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
2
China-Russia Advanced Energy and Power Technology ‘Belt and Road’ Joint Laboratory, Harbin 150001, China
3
National Key Laboratory of Low-Carbon Thermal Power Generation Technology and Equipment, Harbin Boiler Company Limited, Harbin 150001, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(4), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040769
Submission received: 21 December 2024 / Revised: 24 January 2025 / Accepted: 5 February 2025 / Published: 7 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In the context of “dual carbon” goals, energy structures are rapidly shifting towards cleaner, low-carbon solutions. The clean and efficient electrode boiler, with its unique heat generation mechanism, is well aligned with this trend. This review begins by outlining the operating principles of electrode boilers, emphasizing their advantages in terms of energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. It then examines the current status of electrode boiler applications within the framework of the “dual carbon” objectives, addressing key challenges and technological barriers. The review concludes that electrode boilers hold significant potential for clean heating, grid peak-shaving, and the integration of renewable energy. However, research on electrode materials, boiler-based water treatment, electric field distribution within boilers, and corrosion issues remains insufficient. To address these gaps, this paper proposes several recommendations, including fostering cross-regional scientific collaboration, advancing the development of new electrode materials and coatings, and leveraging smart internet technologies to optimize electrode boiler performance and applications.

1. Introduction

Energy is the cornerstone and driving force of human civilization, essential for national economies, public welfare, and security. It plays a crucial role in supporting human survival and development, fostering economic growth, and enhancing quality of life. As global development progresses, energy demand continues to rise, resulting in fossil fuel shortages and worsening environmental issues. The excessive emission of greenhouse gases is projected to have catastrophic effects on the global climate, ecosystems, and biodiversity [1,2,3]. Among these gases, carbon dioxide, as the most prevalent, is recognized as the primary pollutant driving global warming and climate change [4,5,6,7,8].
Rapid economic growth and urbanization in recent years have led to a significant expansion in power generation, resulting in increased coal consumption and heightened pressure to reduce carbon emissions [9,10]. China’s carbon dioxide emissions surpassed those of the U.S. in 2007 and, by 2012, exceeded the combined emissions of the U.S., EU-27, and the UK. Between 2007 and 2013, emissions rose by 45%, making China the world’s largest carbon emitter [11]. Given China’s energy resource endowment of “rich coal, poor oil, and scarce gas” [12], its promotion of the high-quality development of new energy structures and the acceleration of the transition of the energy structure from one which relies on traditional fossil fuels towards one which uses cleaner, low-carbon energy sources such as wind and solar energy is a key measure in achieving carbon reduction [13]. According to the report “New Leaps and Breakthroughs in China’s Energy Transition”, released by the National Energy Administration, by the end of 2023, the installed capacity of wind and solar power had increased tenfold compared to a decade earlier, with renewable energy accounting for 58.2% of the total installed capacity. Furthermore, renewable energy generation contributed to over half of the overall increase in electricity consumption across the country. The share of renewable and environmentally friendly energy in China’s energy mix has been steadily rising, signaling a deepening energy transition, with wind and solar energy gradually replacing traditional fossil fuels [14,15].
In recent years, under the guidance of the “dual carbon” goals, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies have been widely developed and have become relatively mature industrial emission reduction technologies. However, these technologies come with high costs, and their integration with large-scale facilities (such as coal-fired power plants and oil refineries) is complex, making them less suitable for small-scale facilities. While industrial emission reductions are important, emission reductions in the residential and commercial sectors are equally crucial, as their contribution to overall carbon reduction targets is vital. In this context, electrode boilers, which are clean, efficient, and flexible for deployment in regional and small-scale scenarios, and can be integrated with various energy storage systems, have gained widespread attention. Compared to traditional boilers, electrode boilers are more cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly [16]. They also play an important role in achieving clean heating, peak-shaving in power plants, and facilitating the absorption of renewable energy [17,18,19,20]. There have already been numerous successful applications of electrode boilers, with several representative cases summarized in Table 1. Furthermore, the benefits of electrode boilers are expected to grow in the future. As such, research on electrode boilers holds considerable academic and practical value.

2. The Fundamental Principle of the Electrode Boiler

Unlike traditional electric boilers that use heating elements to heat the boiler water, electrode boilers submerge electrodes directly into the water. This design leverages the high thermal resistance of the boiler water to convert electrical energy directly into thermal energy, with minimal energy loss during the conversion process, achieving an efficiency greater than 99.5% [21].

2.1. Types of Electrode Boilers

Based on their fundamental structure and operating principles, electrode boilers can be classified into immersion-type and jet-type boilers [22]. Table 2 provides a comparison of the principles and relevant parameters for these two types of electrode boilers.
The table shows that jet-type electrode boilers produce steam of lower quality, require a large volume of circulating water with stringent water quality standards, and occupy a significant area. In contrast, immersion-type electrode boilers offer several advantages, including high efficiency, compact size, ease of installation and maintenance, cleanliness, pollution-free operation, and a shorter start-up time [24]. As a result, immersion-type electrode boilers hold greater application potential within the context of the “dual carbon” goals. Therefore, this chapter primarily focuses on the analysis of immersion-type electrode boilers.

2.2. Operating Mechanism of Immersion-Type Electrode Boilers

A structural diagram of the immersion-type electrode boiler is shown in Figure 1. The entire operating process of the immersion-type electrode boiler can be divided into three stages [25]:
(1)
The electrodes heat the boiler water: the three-phase electrode is directly immersed in the boiler water, and when electrified, the boiler water, characterized by high thermal resistance, is instantly heated, generating high-quality steam.
(2)
Water circulation within the boiler: the water from the outer drum of the boiler is pumped into the inner drum via a circulation pump to maintain the concentration of the boiler water within the inner drum.
(3)
External feedwater supply: during normal operation or in a hot standby state, external feedwater is required to maintain a constant water level in the outer drum of the boiler, ensuring that the boiler operates reliably.
In addition, a steam valve is installed at the upper section of the inner drum, while a blowdown valve at the lower section is used to discharge high-concentration wastewater from the inner drum.

3. Development of Electrode Boilers in the Context of the “Dual Carbon” Goals

3.1. The Evolution of Electrode Boilers in China

To provide a more intuitive understanding of the development history of electrode boilers, I have compiled key events from significant years in Table 3. The electrode boiler has been in existence for over a century, with the first unit developed in Europe in 1905. Due to technological limitations, this early electrode boiler had a relatively simple structure and lower thermal efficiency compared to traditional boilers, which hindered its widespread adoption at the time. Subsequently, both immersion-type and jet-type electrode boilers were developed, with continuous advancements gradually improving the technology. Research on electrode boilers in China began in the 1980s, and, in the 1990s, China introduced jet-type electrode boiler technology from the United States. However, the development of electrode boilers in China progressed slowly, with more than a decade of technological bottlenecks [27].
In the early 20th century, electrode boilers, which offered greater stability, efficiency, energy savings, and environmental benefits compared to traditional boilers, became the preferred choice in heavy industry. With ongoing advancements in electrode boiler technology, its range of applications has steadily expanded. A report from Beizhes Market Research Company indicates that, in 2022, the global electrode boiler market reached a size of 3.087 billion CNY, with China accounting for 1.184 billion CNY of that total. By 2023, the Chinese market had grown to 1.239 billion CNY, highlighting the significant demand for electrode boilers within China. Under “dual carbon” policy objectives, the clean heating industry is rapidly developing, and electrode boilers, with their unique heat generation principles, are well-suited to this trend towards low-carbon and environmentally friendly energy solutions. As a result, demand for electrode boilers is expected to rise steadily, and the number of enterprises in China offering electrode boiler technologies is likely to increase. However, many Chinese electrode boiler technologies still depend on international cooperation, with numerous enterprises acting as agents for foreign brands. Only a few companies focus on independent research and development, and even fewer possess the core technologies to lead the field. Therefore, advancing independent R&D in electrode boiler technology and breaking free from foreign technological monopolies have become urgent necessities.

3.2. The Technological Advancements of Relevant Enterprises in China

After a long period of technological accumulation, some enterprises in China with a strong commitment to independent innovation and determination to overcome challenges have emerged [28,29]. According to statistics from the Espacenet patent search platform, there were 15,452 patents related to electrode boilers from their inception to 2008. By 1 January 2021, the number of recorded patents had increased to 31,100, indicating a surge in electrode boiler-related patents in recent years (Figure 2). As a leader in electrode boiler technology, Huayuan Qianxian has consistently focused on independent research and development. In response to China’s “dual carbon” policy, the company has developed a range of electrode boiler products with independent intellectual property rights. Additionally, the company has integrated electrode boiler technology with heat storage systems for applications in solar-thermal energy storage and clean heating. This project has been selected for advanced energy-saving technology and product application demonstrations by the Global Environment Facility’s “Energy Efficiency Promotion in Industrial Heating Systems and High Energy-Consuming Equipment”, and it has also been included in the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology’s “National Recommended Catalogue of Energy-Saving Technologies and Equipment in Industry and Information Sectors.”, etc. Shandong Beichen Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Co., Ltd., also adhering to the spirit of independent innovation and aiming to break foreign technology monopolies, has successfully developed China’s first “60 MW high-pressure electrode boiler heat storage/supply complete set”. Its self-developed high-pressure electrode boiler, integrated with water thermal storage technology, has been widely applied. In August 2024, the company was granted a patent for a device titled “Power Regulation Equipment for Electrode Boilers”, reflecting significant advancements in electrode boiler technology.

4. Current Status of Application of and Research on Electrode Boilers in the Context of the “Dual Carbon” Goals

In recent years, the concept of green and low-carbon development has permeated various sectors, and electrode boilers, which align with these principles, have found widespread application across many fields. This chapter highlights key applications and the current state of research on electrode boilers in the context of the “dual carbon” goals.

4.1. Application of Electrode Boilers in Nuclear Power Plants

As an efficient and clean energy source, nuclear power plays a crucial role in ensuring a stable power supply, advancing the energy transition, and achieving “dual carbon” goals. It has already seen widespread adoption in China [30,31,32]. The operation of nuclear power plants requires a significant supply of thermal energy. Compared to conventional coal-, oil-, and gas-fired boilers used in thermal power plants, electrode boilers offer several advantages, including lower investment costs, simpler piping systems, and easier installation. Additionally, electrode boilers have lower operation and maintenance costs, higher efficiency, and offer superior low-carbon and environmental benefits, aligning well with current policy objectives. Moreover, their rapid response capabilities allow electrode boilers to quickly supply thermal energy in emergency situations. As a result, most nuclear power plants in China have adopted electrode boilers as auxiliary steam sources, enhancing operational efficiency and environmental sustainability [25].

4.2. Thermal Energy Storage Technology of Electrode Boilers

Emerging energy storage technologies are crucial for advancing energy structure reforms and fostering the development of the renewable energy industry. Thermal storage technology, with its high flexibility and unique cross-seasonal storage ability, has gradually become a cornerstone in this field. Within the framework of the “dual-carbon” goals, thermal storage technology holds tremendous development potential [33,34,35,36]. The electrode boiler, known for its high energy conversion efficiency, environmental cleanliness, and strong flexibility, has become a vital component in thermal storage systems.
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems in China began to be used in the 1950s and are currently transitioning to a phase of renewable energy integration, focusing on the efficient and sustainable distribution of energy resources [37]. To fully realize efficient heat utilization and actively respond to the “dual carbon” strategy, it is essential to promote flexible retrofitting of CHP units to enhance renewable energy absorption capacities and drive high-quality development in the renewable energy sector. The key to this retrofitting lies in achieving “thermal–electric decoupling” [38]. Electrode boiler thermal storage technology, with its simple operational principles, ease of system control, and relatively mature technology, is well-suited for the thermal–electric decoupling of CHP systems [39].

4.3. Clean Heating

In the civilian sector, boilers are primarily used for urban heating [40]. Traditional boilers suffer from substantial heat loss during start-up and shut-down processes. In contrast, electrode boilers offer faster start-up and shut-down capabilities and can utilize renewable clean energy sources, such as wind and solar power, reducing reliance on conventional fossil fuels. This approach not only mitigates energy losses and the issues associated with fuel storage, supply, and exhaust gas treatment, but also reduces greenhouse gas emissions, enabling cleaner heating.
Promoting clean heating is a key measure in implementing the “dual carbon” strategy [41,42,43], with the replacement of coal-fired boilers becoming an inevitable trend in the modernization and intelligent development of urban areas. Xu et al. [44] mentioned a clean heating solution utilizing electrode boilers, highlighting its significant operational benefits. With the continuous advancement of renewable energy technologies and the acceleration of urbanization in China, electrode boilers—due to their efficiency and environmental advantages—are expected to play an increasingly significant role in the clean heating sector.

4.4. Maintaining Stable Grid Operation

As the energy transition deepens, the frequent integration of renewable energy into the power grid has become an inevitable trend [45,46,47]. In the future, renewable-based power systems will gradually replace traditional gas and coal power generation [48]. While renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power have achieved large-scale grid integration, their intermittent, random, and fluctuating outputs pose challenges to grid stability, necessitating a highly flexible power system [49]. Moreover, when these renewable energy units are integrated into the grid through electronic components, they cannot provide effective rotational inertia, leading to deteriorating frequency and voltage regulation performance [50], which threatens the safe operation of the power system.
Conventional electric boilers have low adjustment rates, making them ill-suited for the frequency regulation required after renewable energy integration. In contrast, electrode boilers offer infinitely variable power regulation from 0% to 100% [27], enabling rapid, real-time adjustment of thermal output to match changes in grid load during heating. This quick response capability allows electrode boilers to effectively manage the instability of renewable resources, improving the overall flexibility and stability of the power grid and enhancing operational safety.

4.5. Grid Peak-Shaving and Renewable Energy Consumption

Driven by the “dual carbon” goals, the wind power industry in China has experienced rapid development [51,52,53]. Recently, the National Energy Administration of China issued the “Notice on Ensuring the Absorption of New Energy to Support High-Quality Development of Renewable Energy”. This “Notice” proposes practical management approaches regarding large-scale grid integration of new energy sources, aiming to enhance the coordination between the construction of new power systems and renewable energy projects, thereby further increasing the capacity for renewable energy consumption [54]. In the “14th Five-Year Plan” for the economy of China, the importance of developing “source-grid-load-storage” is emphasized. It is evident that enhancing the development and utilization of renewable resources, as well as their absorption and storage, is crucial for achieving “carbon peak” and “carbon neutrality” goals [55]. However, the instability of wind power output results in significant differences between the peak and valley values of the net load in the power system. To ensure balance between the “source” and “load” ends and to improve the absorption capacity for renewable energy, the power system requires stronger and more stable peak-shaving capabilities [56,57].
In regions with long winters, heating units are particularly prone to such issues. Due to prolonged operation hours and the need for sustained high output, the peak-shaving capacity of combined heat and power (CHP) systems diminishes, reducing the power system’s ability to absorb wind energy, thus exacerbating wind curtailment. Addressing this issue has become a key research focus globally [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71].
Connecting electrode boilers to CHP units can effectively mitigate these challenges. The CHP units integrated with electrode boiler systems, as shown in Figure 3, use electrode boilers for direct electric heating instead of oil-fired steam heating. The electricity consumed by the electrode boilers is sourced from the unit, ensuring normal thermal load supply even during low-grid-connected-power operation, thereby significantly enhancing the unit’s peak-shaving depth. Moreover, electrode boilers can operate independently in areas with lower heating demand, facilitating the deployment of distributed CHP systems. When paired with thermal storage units, the peak-shaving capability can be further improved [27]. Additionally, using electrode boilers for deep peak-shaving has minimal impact on the normal operation and control logic of existing units, offering rapid adjustment and greater flexibility for the grid to absorb renewable energy sources [58].

5. Issues Requiring Urgent Resolution in Electrode Boiler Technology

In China, the development of electrode boilers began relatively late and still lags behind countries with advanced technologies in this field. Currently, there are several challenges in electrode boiler technology that need to be addressed, as outlined below:

5.1. Issues Related to Electrode Materials and Corrosion

Like traditional boilers, electrode boilers face corrosion challenges due to the high-temperature, high-humidity, and high-pressure environment within the furnace. Numerous studies have examined the corrosion characteristics of various metals and alloys under different operating conditions. For instance, Ning Fangqiang et al. [72] investigated the corrosion properties of 690 nickel-based alloy and 405 stainless steel in high-temperature, high-pressure water environments, while Yang Jianqiao et al. [73] explored the oxidation behavior of four candidate alloys for boilers in 700 °C supercritical water. These studies offer valuable insights into material selection for diverse application scenarios.
In China, research on electrode materials—critical components of electrode boilers—remains insufficient, leading to a heavy reliance on imported materials. Since electrode boilers operate by directly immersing electrodes in boiler water for heating, the electrodes are highly susceptible to electrochemical corrosion [74]. The characteristics of these materials not only directly impact the heating efficiency of the boiler but also influence the unit’s operational stability. Therefore, corrosion in electrode boilers, particularly electrode corrosion, is a key area for further investigation.
When studying corrosion in high-voltage electrodes, it is crucial to consider not only high-temperature, high-pressure, and high-humidity environments but also the effects of high-voltage alternating current (AC). However, there is no consensus on the mechanisms of AC corrosion, either domestically or internationally [75]. Most research has focused on AC corrosion at lower current densities, with limited studies addressing AC corrosion of high-voltage electrodes in high-power boilers [74]. Zheng Zhong et al. [27] explored the AC corrosion characteristics of several electrode materials under high current conditions, finding that titanium and graphite exhibit good conductivity and AC corrosion resistance, making them promising candidates for electrode materials or coatings. However, the study had limitations, such as the influence of oxygen and experimental voltage constraints, which affected the sample size for comparison. As electrode boilers are increasingly applied in various scenarios, selecting materials that optimize operational efficiency while ensuring economic feasibility and safety becomes more critical. Research on AC corrosion in high-voltage electrodes remains insufficient, with experimental frameworks yet to be fully developed, highlighting the need for further study in this area.

5.2. Issues Related to Boiler Water Treatment

The quality of boiler water is crucial for steam generation in electrode boilers, as the boiler water is directly heated through electric current. Excessive impurities, such as calcium and magnesium ions, chloride ions, and carbon dioxide, can lead to scaling and corrosion, reducing the boiler’s heat production efficiency and lifespan [76]. Continuous operation of electrode boilers inevitably leads to scaling and corrosion due to water contamination. Many studies have investigated methods to mitigate fouling. Lee et al. [77] proposed an electrochemical descaling technique, but the composition of fouling in electrode boilers is more complex. In addition to common scales like carbonates, sulfates, and silicates, deposits may include metal oxides, electrolysis products, and corrosion products. This complexity requires specialized treatment methods, making fouling management more challenging.
Maintaining boiler water quality during operation through chemical dosing can alleviate scaling and corrosion. However, electrode boilers have stricter water quality requirements than traditional boilers. The dosing systems for traditional boilers are not suitable for electrode boilers due to control delays [78]. Furthermore, different boiler types and water quality conditions require tailored treatment chemicals. Therefore, further research is necessary to advance our understanding of electrode boiler water properties. Additionally, most current monitoring systems rely on manual operations, resulting in delayed data analysis. These systems typically measure basic parameters like pH and hardness, overlooking other critical water quality factors [79,80,81].

5.3. Issues Related to Electric Field Distribution in Boilers

Despite extensive research on the application and control methods for electrode boilers, numerical simulations of electric field distributions in these systems remain limited. These simulations require complex mathematical models, often involving multiphysics coupling (such as electromagnetic fields and fluid dynamics), and the internal conditions of electrode boilers make it difficult to set boundary conditions, which complicates the calculations. As the electrodes are energized, ions in the boiler water move under the potential difference between the electrodes, generating Joule heat and raising the water temperature [82,83]. The distribution of the electric field within the boiler water significantly affects heat generation efficiency. Uneven electric field distribution can lead to high- and low-field regions within the furnace, which may compromise the operational safety of the electrode boiler. Therefore, research into electric field distribution is critical.
Studies on electric field distributions in electrode boilers remain sparse. Jiang Shun et al. [26] investigated electric field distribution under both undamaged and damaged electrode conditions. Their findings revealed that electric field distortion around damaged electrodes could reduce heating efficiency. Xiaoke He [84] examined the overall electric field distribution under a nominal voltage of 10 kV, studying the effects of poor power quality, such as unbalanced voltages and varying bus voltages, on electric field distribution. Results indicated that poor power quality could reduce electric field strength or shift it, impacting heating efficiency. Given the complexity and variability of power quality, boiler water conditions, and electrode corrosion, more research is needed to improve our understanding of electric field distributions under different conditions.

5.4. Issues Related to Monitoring and Control

Like the monitoring and regulation of water quality in electrode boilers, the monitoring of equipment failures and power quality is also essential for their safe and efficient operation. With ongoing technological advancements and the continued implementation of the “dual carbon” policy, more advanced electrode boiler products with increasingly complex structures will emerge, making equipment failure monitoring and maintenance more challenging [85,86]. Additionally, there is a lack of monitoring systems on the market capable of assessing the power quality and electrode corrosion in electrode boilers. Existing monitoring systems are often insufficient in their parameter coverage, potentially overlooking critical parameters. Therefore, it is essential to improve the development of electrode boiler monitoring systems by leveraging current research findings in conjunction with modern technological methods. For instance, Hu Yanwei et al. [87] explored fault detection for electrode boilers using a gray model, specifically employing the GM(1,1) model to design a predictive model and algorithm for boiler operation anomalies. Their experimental validation achieved the expected goals, enabling automated boiler adjustments and ensuring safe operation. Chen et al. [88] proposed a method for predicting the conductivity of electrode boilers using artificial neural networks. Based on the predicted hourly conductivity results, this method optimizes operational decisions, enabling faster water replenishment responses and ensuring the normal operation of the boiler.
In terms of regulation, traditional sensors have limited accuracy, regulation systems exhibit slow response times, and algorithms are relatively outdated, with insufficient anti-interference capabilities, making them susceptible to external disturbances and unable to meet the demands of future electrode boiler developments. Additionally, different application scenarios require distinct monitoring and regulation methods, underscoring the need for further research to adapt to diverse application requirements.
I have summarized the issues mentioned above and the potential solutions in Table 4.

6. Summary and Outlook

  • In recent years, numerous scholars have conducted in-depth studies on the mechanisms behind wind curtailment, proposing various strategies to enhance system integration capacity through the use of electrode boilers. Future research should focus on optimizing the parameter configurations of electrode boilers for different application scenarios, while also exploring strategies for absorbing energy from other renewable resources. Moreover, it is crucial to strengthen the connection between theoretical research and practical applications, supporting experimental validation and the dissemination of new technologies.
  • The electrode boiler plays a key role in peak-shaving for combined heat and power (CHP) units and in the absorption of new energy. Future CHP systems are expected to be more modular, with electrode boilers serving as flexible and scalable components. Future efforts should prioritize the development of heat-power decoupling technologies, optimize the integration of energy storage systems (especially novel storage technologies), and refine control strategies between the CHP unit and the electrode boiler. Advanced control methods, such as fuzzy logic and neural networks, should be incorporated to enable intelligent control of the electrode boiler. These advancements will enhance system flexibility, stability, economic efficiency, and energy utilization.
  • It is recommended that further research be conducted on electrode materials to reduce dependence on imported materials. Key areas of focus should include the development of novel electrode materials, additives, and protective coatings, aiming to balance high heat generation efficiency with cost-effectiveness and corrosion resistance. For example, superconducting materials, known for their unique properties, like zero resistance and strong magnetism, reduce energy losses during transmission. Their high conductivity also enhances durability, extending the lifespan of the electrodes, making them promising candidates for electrode applications. In the future, electrode materials may incorporate self-cleaning technologies through intelligent surface treatment processes, enabling automatic cleaning during operation, thus extending their lifespan while maintaining high performance. Given that corrosion and wear of electrodes are inevitable during boiler operation, the thermal efficiency in corrosive environments should be thoroughly considered when developing new materials.
  • Efficient, low-cost monitoring and assessment of changes in electrode boiler water composition and corrosion are critical. With advancements in Industry 4.0 and IoT technology, there is increasing emphasis on intelligence and automation across various sectors. Research should focus on leveraging these advanced technologies to achieve more accurate and efficient remote control and minimizing control delays as much as possible.
  • With the support of renewable resources such as wind and solar energy, electrode boilers will play an increasingly significant role in clean heating. In the future, the size of electrode boilers may be further reduced to meet the heating needs of residential and small commercial spaces, allowing for seamless integration with existing heating infrastructures (e.g., district heating systems) and building energy management systems (BEMS). Furthermore, electrode boilers will evolve beyond standalone heating devices, integrating with other green technologies such as photovoltaic power generation, heat pumps, and smart grids to form comprehensive energy solutions.
  • In the future, electrode boilers may integrate with novel thermal storage materials (e.g., phase-change materials and ceramic storage) to improve storage efficiency and thermal energy density. This will further enhance the electrode boiler’s capabilities in energy storage and heat recovery.
  • Strengthening collaboration between enterprises and universities, as well as among enterprises, is essential. Interdisciplinary and cross-regional knowledge integration is a key driver of modern technological development and is crucial for addressing significant engineering challenges.
  • In addition to the applications of electrode boilers discussed in Chapter 3, considering their advantages and the specific needs of various industries, I have outlined some potential applications in Table 5.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft, Investigation, Methodology, Z.Z.; Validation, Investigation, Visualization, R.H.; Funding acquisition, Conceptualization, Methodology, Y.Z.; Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, H.D.; Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Q.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by China General Nuclear Power Group-Harbin Institute of Technology Advanced Nuclear Energy and New Energy Research Institute, grant number: CGN-HIT20221; Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province, China, grant number: TD2022E002. The APC was funded by Harbin Institute of Technology.

Conflicts of Interest

H.D. was employed by Harbin Boiler Company Limited. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors declare that this study received funding from Harbin Boiler Company. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication.

References

  1. Zhao, Z.-Y.; Yao, S.; Yang, S.-P.; Wang, X.-L. Under goals of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality: Status, problems, and suggestions of CCUS in China. Huan Jing Ke Xue = Huanjing Kexue 2023, 44, 1128–1138. [Google Scholar]
  2. Yang, Q.; Sun, Y.; Zhou, H.; Ling, C. Research review of carbon capture, utilization and storage technology in China’s typical industries. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol. (Nat. Sci. Ed.) 2023, 51, 101–110. [Google Scholar]
  3. Liu, F.; Guan, J.; Qi, Z.; Fang, M.; Shen, Z.; Li, C. Technology route selection for carbon capture utilization and storage in coal fired power plants. J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol 2022, 50, 1–13. [Google Scholar]
  4. Al-Mulali, U.; Tang, C.F.; Ozturk, I. Estimating the environment Kuznets curve hypothesis: Evidence from Latin America and the Caribbean countries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 50, 918–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Chandran, V.; Sharma, S.; Madhavan, K. Electricity consumption–growth nexus: The case of Malaysia. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 606–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Chang, C.-C.; Carballo, C.F.S. Energy conservation and sustainable economic growth: The case of Latin America and the Caribbean. Energy Policy 2011, 39, 4215–4221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Fodha, M.; Zaghdoud, O. Economic growth and pollutant emissions in Tunisia: An empirical analysis of the environmental Kuznets curve. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 1150–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Kivyiro, P.; Arminen, H. Carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, and foreign direct investment: Causality analysis for Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy 2014, 74, 595–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Rui, Q. Influencing Factors and Scenario Prediction of Carbon Emissions in China. Sci. Technol. Ecnony Mark. 2023, 12, 46–49. [Google Scholar]
  10. Suo, H.-X. Development and Reform Commission Pushes for Coal Power Retrofit Plan. China Business Daily. 22 July 2024, p. A04. Available online: https://finance.sina.com.cn/jjxw/2024-07-20/doc-incetcst7510379.shtml (accessed on 12 September 2024).
  11. Guan, D.; Meng, J.; Reiner, D.-M.; Zhang, N.; Shan, Y.; Mi, Z.; Shao, S.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Davis, S.-J. Structural decline in China’s CO2 emissions through transitions in industry and energy systems. Nat. Geosci. 2018, 11, 551–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Tan, B.; Song, H.; Si, S.; Lu, X.-M.; Liu, Z.-P.; Zhang, Y.-L.; Xu, Y. The technology and practice for clean combustion of coal. Coal Sci. Technol. 2022, 50 (Suppl. S2), 393–402. [Google Scholar]
  13. Qin, B.-Y.; Zhou, X.-Y.; Ding, T.; Shi, W.; Li, H.-Y.; Wen, Y. Review on development of global carbon market and prospect of China’s carbon market construction. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2022, 46, 186–199. [Google Scholar]
  14. Ren, D.-W.; Hou, J.-M.; Xiao, J.-Y.; Jin, Y.; Jin, C.; Hui, D. Exploration of key technologies for energy storage in the cleansing transformation of energy and power. High Volt. Eng. 2021, 47, 2751–2759. [Google Scholar]
  15. Zhou, Q.; Ma, Y.-H.; Shen, C.-Y.; Zhang, Z.-Z.; Zhang, Y.-Q.; Yang, S.-Y. Reflection and suggestions on sustainable development of new energy in northwest China in new era. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2020, 36, 78–84. [Google Scholar]
  16. Yuan, X.-F. Study on Mechanism Modeling and Dynamic Characteristics of Submerged Electrode Boiler System. Master’s Thesis, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  17. Wang, Z.; Chen, W.-B.; Ye, Y.-H. Application of regenerative electrode boilers in heating systems. Sci. Technol. Innov. Her. 2018, 15, 88–89. [Google Scholar]
  18. Xie, H.-B.; Dai, S.; Xu, D.; Hu, L.-X. Study on the impact of district heating network characteristics on the effectiveness of wind power curtailment reduction. Electr. Power Autom. Equip. 2020, 40, 24–31. [Google Scholar]
  19. Wang, K. Discussion on the flexibility peak-shaving and decoupling technology for heating units under the “Dual-Carbon” targets. Saf. Technol. Spec. Equip. 2023, 8–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Xu, Z.-P.; Chen, J.; Zhang, J.-X.; Arafat, A. Wind curtailment consumption coordination heating strategy based on electrode boiler and thermal power plant. Mod. Electron. Tech. 2023, 46, 169–175. [Google Scholar]
  21. Han, W.-Q. Research on combined heating mode of photothermal and electrode boiler. Sol. Energy 2019, 53–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Luo, G.-X.; Wang, J.-X. Electric Heat Boiler. Ind. Boil. 1987, 22+48–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Wang, H.; Dong, H.-M.; Du, Q.; Wei, G.-H. Current situation and outlook of electrode boilers in China. J. Eng. Therm. Energy Power 2023, 38, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
  24. Wang, Z.; Dai, G.-P.; Zhang, D.-C.; Huang, Y.-T.; Ceng, N. Research on the insulation performance of the boiler shell for immersion electrode boilers. Technol. Wind 2019, 162–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Guo, F.; Xia, Q.-Y.; Liu, Y. Theory and application of immersion-type electrode boiler. Energy Res. Manag. 2012, 2, 65–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Jiang, X.; Zhou, Y.-X. Study on electric field distribution characteristics of electrodes in submerged electrode boiler. Comput. Simul. 2022, 39, 248–252. [Google Scholar]
  27. Zheng, Z. Study on Electrode Corrosioncharacteristics of High Voltage Electrodeboiler. Master’s Thesis, Xinjiang University, Xinjiang, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  28. Electrode Boiler Technology in Typical Cases and Application Characteristics of Wind Power Heating in Xinjiang. In Proceedings of the National Thermal Power Plant Unit Flexibility Retrofit Technology Exchange Seminar; China Thermal Power Industry Technology Innovation Strategic Alliance, National Thermal Power Engineering Technology Research Center: Beijing, China, 2018; p. 5.
  29. Chen, W.-P.; Dai, G.-P.; Chen, C.; Ye, Y.-H. A review of the research and development of high-voltage electrode boiler technology. Technol. Econ. Guide 2019, 27, 65–66. [Google Scholar]
  30. Xu, H.-G.; Luo, W. Research on the utilization of waste heat from thermal drainage and centralized heating and cooling in nuclear power plants. Fluid Mach. 2024, 52, 100–104. [Google Scholar]
  31. Yao, M.-J.; Ye, Q. Academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering: Nuclear Power Promotes the Achievement of the ’Dual Carbon’ Goals. China Energy News. 8 September 2023, p. 4. Available online: http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/html/2023-09/08/node_2225.htm (accessed on 15 September 2024).
  32. Deng, Z.-L. Consideration on environmental protection of new energy development and utilization under the background of carbon peak carbon neutrality. Leather Manuf. Environ. Technol. 2023, 4, 41–44. [Google Scholar]
  33. He, L.; Hu, Z.-H. Thermal Energy Storage Technology: A cost-effective energy solution. Science and Technology Daily. 28 May 2024, p. 006. Available online: https://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/http_www.kjrb.com/kjrb/html/2024-05/28/node_7.htm (accessed on 21 September 2024).
  34. Rao, Y.-F.; Si, X.-Z.; Gu, Q.-F.; Yang, H.-J. Energy Storage Technology Development Trend and Technology Status Analysis. Electr. Energy Manag. Technol. 2020, 7–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Yang, Y.-C.; Zhang, Y.; Mo, K. Development and Outlook of New Technologies for Energy Storage. China Heavy Equip. 2022, 27–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Shen, X.-T.; Li, Q.; Yue, L.-W. Multiple Countries Accelerate the Development of Advanced Energy Storage Technologies. People’s Daily. 19 July 2022, p. 017. Available online: http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2022/0719/c1002-32478817.html (accessed on 21 September 2024).
  37. Ma, W.-S. The Analysis of Energy Consumption Characteristics and Research on Optimal Load Dispatch of Cogeneration Units. Master’s Thesis, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin, China, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  38. Wang, Z.-X.; Zhang, J.-J.; Dong, B.; Shi, L.-N.; Li, S.; Yang, F.; Gu, J.-G. Research on technology and policy of flexibility renovation for coal-fired power plants under carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goal. Electr. Power Technol. Environ. Prot. 2024, 40, 213–220. [Google Scholar]
  39. Liu, Z.-X.; Zhang, Y.-J.; Gao, T.-T.; Hou, Y.; Bian, J.-C. Analysis of Flexibility Improvement Technology for Thermal Power Generating Units under the “Dual Carbon” Goal. Power Stn. Aux. Equip. 2023, 44, 40–45. [Google Scholar]
  40. Zhang, T.-Y. A Brief Analysis of the Application of Electric Boilers and Boiler Room Design. China Plant Eng. 2023, 120–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zhang, C.-F.; Ding, X.-Y.; Gao, X.-F.; Qu, S.-J.; Chuai, Z.-Y.; Cheng, Y.-S.; Li, X.-J.; Lan, Y. Research and Analysis on the Implementation Plan of Promoting “Clean Energy+Clean Heating”. Jilin Electr. Power 2022, 50, 13–16. [Google Scholar]
  42. Shan, Q.; Yang, X.-F.; Wu, X.-H.; Sun, D.-L.; Yu, C.-Y.; Liu, G.-H. Research on modeling and simulation of ground source heat pump heating system with seasonal solar thermal Research on modeling and simulation of ground source heat pump heating system with seasonal solar thermal. Renew. Energy Resour. 2022, 40, 1028–1037. [Google Scholar]
  43. Ma, Q.; Lu, Y.; Wang, M.; Ren, Y.-C.; Chai, R. Analysis of the current status of heating research based on clean heating methods. East China Sci. Technol. 2023, 89–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Xu, Z.-J.; Zhao, D.-P. Research on Clean Heating from Wind Power Based on Cogeneration. In Innovation Practices in Power Enterprise Management in China (2019); Jilin Electric Power Co., Ltd. Bai Cheng Power Plant: Baicheng, China, 2020; p. 4. [Google Scholar]
  45. Yuan, H.; Liu, Y.-H.; Sun, J.; Ge, J. Energy Storage Capacity Optimization Allocation Methods for Grid-Connected New Energy under Dual-Carbon Background. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2024, 40, 134–140. [Google Scholar]
  46. Zhang, D.; Feng, K.-H.; Shi, Z.-Y.; Yu, Q.-X. Current States and Recommendations for Grid Integration of New Energy in China. Sol. Energy 2024, 89–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Yang, X.-S. Analysis of New Energy Grid Integration and Energy Storage Technologies. Xinjiang Youse Jinshu 2023, 46, 96–97. [Google Scholar]
  48. Wang, Z. Research on Energy Storage Planning and Operation Control Technology of New Power System under the Background of “Dual Carbon”. Mod. Ind. Econ. Informationization 2024, 14, 183–184+188. [Google Scholar]
  49. Yang, J.-W.; Zhang, N.; Wang, Y.; Kang, C.-Q. Multi-energy System Towards Renewable Energy Accommodation: Review and Prospect. Autom. Electr. Power Syst. 2018, 42, 11–24. [Google Scholar]
  50. Liu, F.-L.; Wang, F.; Yan, J.-M.; Xu, G.-Y.; Bi, T.-S. In Estimating maximum penetration level of renewable energy based on frequency stability constrains in power grid. In Proceedings of the 2020 5th Asia Conference on Power and Electrical Engineering (ACPEE), Chengdu, China, 4–7 June 2020; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2020; pp. 607–611. [Google Scholar]
  51. Ji, Z.-G. An Investigation into the Current Status and Development Trends of the Wind Power Industry in China. China Plant Eng. 2020, 217–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Sun, K. Renewable Energy Development in the First Three Quarters Continues to Improve; Energy Supply and Demand Situation Remains Stable. State Grid News. 22 November 2022, p. 005. Available online: http://211.160.252.154/202211/22/#page=6 (accessed on 4 October 2024).
  53. Zhang, Z.-G.; Kang, C.-Q. Challenges and Prospects for Constructing the New-type Power System Towards a Carbon Neutrality Future. Proc. CSEE 2022, 42, 2806–2819. [Google Scholar]
  54. Shi, H.-J. The Need for Further Improvement in Wind Power Consumption Capacity. Electr. Age 2024, 9, 3. [Google Scholar]
  55. Wang, G. Strategic Role and Development Recommendations of Energy Storage under the Carbon Neutrality Goal. Vitality 2021, 20, 107–108. [Google Scholar]
  56. Zhang, J.-H.; Zhang, J.-H.; Mu, G.; Ge, Y.-F.; Yan, G.-G.; Shi, S.-J. Hierarchical Optimization Scheduling of Deep Peak Shaving for Energy-storageAuxiliary Thermal Power Generating Units. Power Syst. Technol. 2019, 43, 3961–3970. [Google Scholar]
  57. Li, J.-H.; An, C.-Y.; Li, C.-P.; Zhang, J.-X.; Liu, R.-T. Multi-Objective Optimization Scheduling Method Considering Peak Regulating Market Transactions for Energy Storage-New Energy-Thermal Power. Trans. China Electrotech. Soc. 2023, 38, 6391–6406. [Google Scholar]
  58. Xu, B.; Cui, H.-L. Experimental study on deep peak shaving performance of combined electrode boiler of cogeneration unit. Ningxia Electr. Power 2022, 60–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Sun, M.-M.; Wang, L. Economic Analysis of Peak Regulation Method in Heat Grid with Electrode Boiler for Energy Storage. J. Shenyang Inst. Eng. (Nat. Sci.) 2019, 15, 327–331. [Google Scholar]
  60. Liu, R.-F.; He, Y.-K.; Qi, X.-F.; Wang, R.; Liu, Q.; Luo, K.-Y. Cost Characteristics and Social Cost Comparison of Energy Storage and Other Flexible Regulation Resources. China Power Enterp. Manag. 2019, 35–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Miao, C.-H.; Bai, Z.-H.; Wang, W.; Sun, F.-C.; Zhang, P.; Yang, P. Economic comparison and analysis of typical regenerative electric heating projects. Power Demand Side Manag. 2018, 20, 36–39. [Google Scholar]
  62. Zhang, X.-H. The Study of Technology and Application about Acquiring Heat Energy by Electricity. Master’s Thesis, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  63. Chu, H.-C. Research on Accommodating Curtailed Wind Power Based on Wind Power Heating. Master’s Thesis, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  64. Liu, D.-J. Study on Deep Peak-Shaving Technology for Thermal Power Units. China Plant Eng. 2020, 181–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Xu, F.; Min, Y.; Chen, L.; Chen, Q.; Hu, W.; Zhang, W.-L.; Wang, X.-H.; Hou, Y.-H. Combined Electricity-Heat Operation System Containing Large Capacity Thermal Energy Storage. Proc. CSEE 2014, 34, 5063–5072. [Google Scholar]
  66. Xu, Y.-K. The Design and Analysis of Game Theorymechanism About Thermal Power Plantparticipation in Wind Power Heating. Master’s Thesis, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  67. Chen, Y.-X. Research on CHP Units’ Operating Characteristic and the Wind Power Accommodation Capacity Using the Electrical Boiler to Compensatepower Peak Load. Master’s Thesis, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, China, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  68. Zhao, Q.-X.; Chen, X.-L.; Shao, H.-S.; Wang, Y.-G. Technical Innovation & Development in Industrial Boiler. Ind. Boil. 2016, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Chen, J.-Y.; Wang, L. Electric design of auxiliary steam boiler. Electr. Power 2011, 44, 62–65. [Google Scholar]
  70. Zhao, C.-L.; Xiu, H.-X. Briefly Introduce Auxiliary Boiler Selection in Nuclear Power Plant. Appl. Energy Technol. 2010, 25–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Zhou, X.-L.; Bai, M.; Na, E.-s. Feasibility Analysis of Electric Start-up Boiler for 1000MW Thermal Power Units. Power Syst. Eng. 2016, 32, 37–39+43. [Google Scholar]
  72. Ning, F.-Q. Crevice Corrosion Behaviors of Nickel-Based Alloy 690 and 405 Stainless Steel in High Temperature High Pressure Water. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  73. Yang, J.-Q.; Wang, S.-Z.; Wang, J.-H.; Xu, H.-D. Oxidation Behaviors of Four Candidate Materials for the Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Water Power Plant in Supercritical Water at 700 °C. J. Xi’an Jiaotong Univ. 2021, 55, 18–26. [Google Scholar]
  74. Zheng, Z.; Zhou, Y.-X.; Li, Y.-Y. AC Corrosion Behavior of Several Metallic Materials as Candidate for Boiler Electrode. J. Chiness Soc. Corros. Prot. 2023, 43, 202–208. [Google Scholar]
  75. Li, Z.-L.; Yang, Y. Mechanism, influence factors and risk evaluation of metal alternating current corrosion. CIESC J. 2011, 62, 1790–1799. [Google Scholar]
  76. Liu, X.; Chi, J.; Dong, B.; Sun, Y. Recent progress in decoupled H2 and O2 production from electrolytic water splitting. ChemElectroChem 2019, 6, 2157–2166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Lee, J.; Kang, Y.; Kim, J.-S.; Park, J.; Lee, J.-J.; Kim, B.-K. Electrochemical descaling of metal oxides from stainless steel using an ionic liquid–acid solution. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 15709–15714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Xu, X.-M.; Liang, Y.-L.; Wang, Z.-Y.; Lu, Y. Constant Pressure Expansion Water Supply and Exhaust Device for High Temperature Circulating Hot Water System of Electrode Boiler, Has Solenoid Valve That Is Connected to Pure Water Make-Up. Pump. Patent CN208671388-U, 29 March 2019. [Google Scholar]
  79. Gong, Y.; Hu, Z.; Liu, T.-T. Application of automatic monitoring system of the hardness of water quality on the steam boiler’s water treatment equipment on the oil field. Foreign Electron. Meas. Technol. 2006, 63–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Wang, X.; Tong, W.; Li, C.-G.; Jiao, Y.-Q.; Di, X.-M.; Wang, Q.; Wang, J.-P. Application of Intelligent Water Quality Detection System in Boiler Water Quality Analysis. Sino-Glob. Energy 2022, 27, 96–100. [Google Scholar]
  81. Olatinwo, S.O.; Joubert, T.-H. Energy efficient solutions in wireless sensor systems for water quality monitoring: A review. IEEE Sens. J. 2018, 19, 1596–1625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Zhang, Y. Operating Principles, Application Prospects, and Demonstration Effects of High-Voltage Electrode Thermal Storage Boilers. J. Shandong Ind. Technol. 2017, 4+42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Yuan, X.-F.; Ma, J.; Zhang, Q.; Mo, R.-C. Study on improving operation flexibility of heating unit by using electrode boiler. Electr. Power Sci. Eng. 2018, 34, 42–48. [Google Scholar]
  84. He, X.; Ruan, Y.; Wang, W. Three-Dimensional Transient Electric Field Characteristics of High Pressure Electrode Boilers. Electronics 2024, 13, 1615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Wu, X.-L.; Wang, L.-L.; Zhang, W.-W.; Gu, Z.-F. Analysis and application of order degree in intelligent manufacturing line control system based on information characterization. Comput. Integr. Manuf. Syst. 2021, 27, 1741–1748. [Google Scholar]
  86. Jiang, Y.; Li, Y.-N.; Fan, J.-L. Model Predictive Control-based Setpoint Regulation in Industrial Processes. Control Eng. China 2018, 25, 980–984. [Google Scholar]
  87. Hu, Y.-W.; He, W.-F.; Ren, L.-F.; Chen, Y.-H. Analysis of Fault Detection of Electrode Boiler Equipment Based on Grey Model. Mach. Build. Autom. 2023, 52, 229–232. [Google Scholar]
  88. Chen, W.-B.; Ceng, N.; Zhang, D.-C.; Wang, S.-G.; Huang, Y.-T. Conductivity Prediction and Control Methods for Electrode Boilers Based on Artificial Neural Networks. Electron. Technol. Softw. Eng. 2019, 71–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energies 18 00769 g001
Figure 1. Structural schematic of an immersion-type electrode boiler [26].
Figure 1. Structural schematic of an immersion-type electrode boiler [26].
Energies 18 00769 g001
Energies 18 00769 g002
Figure 2. Variation in the number of electrode boiler patents over the years.
Figure 2. Variation in the number of electrode boiler patents over the years.
Energies 18 00769 g002
Energies 18 00769 g003
Figure 3. Combined heat and power (CHP) system for electrode boiler [58].
Figure 3. Combined heat and power (CHP) system for electrode boiler [58].
Energies 18 00769 g003
Table 1. Typical electrode boiler projects and key achievements.
Table 1. Typical electrode boiler projects and key achievements.
ProjectKey Achievements
Xinjiang Altay City Clean Energy Heating Demonstration Project, ChinaThis project, developed by Beijing Reeter Ai Energy Technology Co., Ltd. and Heng’an Power in China, includes four 120 MW high-temperature hot-water boilers, thermal storage support, a 4500 m2 electric boiler house, and six 2000 m3 thermal storage tanks. The system utilizes off-peak electricity for thermal storage at night, releasing heat during the day. The electrode boiler’s outlet water temperature reaches 140 °C, and the thermal storage can retain heat at 130 °C. Annually, the system consumes 158 million kWh, saving 55,400 tons of coal and reducing CO2 emissions by 138,000 tons.
Yunnan Jinding Zinc Industry Co., Ltd. Fluidized Bed Boiler Environmental Retrofit Project, ChinaA core piece of equipment, an electrode boiler, was successfully commissioned, achieving a thermal efficiency of 99.58%. This led to a significant reduction in energy consumption and pollutant emissions. Additionally, the system’s intelligent control improves automation levels and enhances the working conditions for operators.
Gansu 2 Million m2 Centralized Heating ProjectThis project utilizes four high-pressure electrode boilers and three thermal storage tanks for centralized heating. Unlike coal-fired boilers, the electrode boilers operate without combustion, eliminating exhaust and carbon emissions, thus ensuring clean heating. The system’s high thermal efficiency minimizes energy loss, and by storing heat during off-peak hours and releasing it during peak hours, it capitalizes on the peak–valley price difference, significantly reducing operational costs—an advantage that traditional boilers cannot offer.
Table 2. Comparison of Two Types of Electrode Boilers [23].
Table 2. Comparison of Two Types of Electrode Boilers [23].
Jet-Type Electrode BoilersImmersion-Type Electrode Boilers
PrincipleBoiler water is sprayed directly onto the electrode for heating; the electrode is not immersed in the water, and there is no direct contact between the electrode and the metal shell, eliminating the need for insulation of the metal shell.The electrode, connected to a high-voltage power source, is immersed in the boiler water for heating. Due to indirect contact between the electrode and the metal shell via the boiler water, insulation for the metal shell is required.
Power RequirementsThree-phase four-wire system with the neutral point groundedThe three-phase electrodes within the boiler are nearly symmetrical, so no special requirements exist for the power supply lines.
Steam QualityHigh salt contentLow salt content
Circulating Water VolumeA large volume of water is required, as heating power is mainly sustained by the volume of water sprayed onto the electrodes.A smaller volume of circulating water is needed, primarily to compensate for evaporation losses.
Insulation NeedsThe outer shell is electrically charged and requires insulation devices. The outer shell is not electrically charged and does not require insulation.
Boiler Water ConductivityHigh, approximately 1700 μS/cmLow, around 20–20 μS/cm
Operation and MaintenanceMore complex; requires regular pollution discharge and water replenishment, with strict water quality requirements.Simpler, with fewer maintenance requirements.
Space RequirementLargerSmaller
Table 3. Development History of Electrode Boilers.
Table 3. Development History of Electrode Boilers.
YearKey Events Related to Electrode Boilers
1905European scientists invented the world’s first low-pressure electrode boiler.
1926Sweden’s Z&I Company pioneered the submerged electrode boiler, significantly improving control precision and enabling direct connection to high-voltage power sources (6–20 kV), marking the birth of high-pressure electrode boilers.
1940sEuropean researchers developed the jet-type electrode boiler, which reduced the insulation requirements and began to be applied in industrial production.
1970s to 1980sWith the rapid expansion of nuclear power plants abroad, electrode boilers gained widespread application in nuclear power construction due to their notable performance with regard to environmental and safety-related factors.
1983With the rapid expansion of nuclear power plants abroad, electrode boilers gained widespread application in nuclear power construction due to their notable performance with regard to environmental and safety-related factors.
1990sChina introduced nuclear technology from Westinghouse for the first time, and jet-type electrode boilers began to be applied on a large scale in the country.
2009 to presentThe Chinese high-pressure electrode boiler market has continuously advanced along two main lines: the “localization of overseas brands” and the “independence of domestic manufacturers”.
Table 4. Some issues and potential solutions for electrode boilers.
Table 4. Some issues and potential solutions for electrode boilers.
IssuePotential Solutions
Electrode Materials and CorrosionImprove the study of corrosion mechanisms; develop new electrode materials, additives, and protective coatings.
Boiler Water TreatmentEnhance research on the characteristics of electrode boiler water under different conditions; develop faster and more accurate intelligent monitoring and dosing systems.
Research on In-Boiler Electric Field DistributionImprove the study of electric field distribution in electrode boilers under various conditions; explore methods to avoid or correct electric field issues.
Monitoring and ControlExpand the scope of monitoring and control; develop more accurate and efficient systems by integrating modern intelligent technologies.
Table 5. Potential applications of electrode boilers.
Table 5. Potential applications of electrode boilers.
Potential Applications
Hydrogen Production and UtilizationElectrode boilers can be integrated with hydrogen production systems (e.g., electrolysis units) to provide the high temperatures required for enhanced electrolysis efficiency, or they can utilize hydrogen as an energy source to improve overall energy performance. Additionally, electrode boilers can serve as a hydrogen-powered heat sources, enabling the integration of hydrogen with thermal energy systems.
Zero-Carbon and Smart Building SystemsElectrode boilers can adjust their operation based on real-time climate conditions, energy prices, and building demands. They can also be integrated with other in-building energy systems (e.g., heat pumps, solar energy, and energy storage) to optimize energy management and reduce carbon emissions.
Seawater DesalinationElectrode boilers can supply stable thermal energy for seawater desalination, particularly when paired with renewable energy sources. This not only reduces carbon emissions but also enhances the economic viability of desalination processes. By integrating with solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources, electrode boilers offer low-carbon, efficient desalination solutions.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhao, Z.; Hu, R.; Zhang, Y.; Dong, H.; Du, Q. Current Research Status and Prospects of Electrode Boilers Under the Background of the “Dual Carbon” Goals. Energies 2025, 18, 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040769

AMA Style

Zhao Z, Hu R, Zhang Y, Dong H, Du Q. Current Research Status and Prospects of Electrode Boilers Under the Background of the “Dual Carbon” Goals. Energies. 2025; 18(4):769. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040769

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Zheng, Rui Hu, Yu Zhang, Heming Dong, and Qian Du. 2025. "Current Research Status and Prospects of Electrode Boilers Under the Background of the “Dual Carbon” Goals" Energies 18, no. 4: 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040769

APA Style

Zhao, Z., Hu, R., Zhang, Y., Dong, H., & Du, Q. (2025). Current Research Status and Prospects of Electrode Boilers Under the Background of the “Dual Carbon” Goals. Energies, 18(4), 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040769

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop