Taxi Fleet Renewal in Cities with Improved Hybrid Powertrains: Life Cycle and Sensitivity Analysis in Lisbon Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Road Vehicle Enhancements and Taxi Applications
1.2. Environmental and Financial Burden of Alternative Vehicles
1.3. Proposed Approach
2. Taxi Vehicle Simulation
2.1. Reference Taxi
Component | Parameter | HEV a | ICEV b |
---|---|---|---|
Body | Curb weight (kg)/Cargo (kg) | 1368/70 | 1405/70 |
Frontal area (m2)/Drag Coeficient | 2.16/0.25 | 2.5/0.28 | |
Generator | Power (kW@rpm) | 44@1000–14000 rpm | - |
Max Torque (N.m@rpm) | 40@1000 rpm | - | |
Motor | Power (kW@rpm) | 60@14000 rpm | - |
Max Torque (N.m@rpm) | 207@2500 rpm | - | |
ICE | Nominal Power (kW@rpm) | 73@5200 rpm | 100 |
Max Torque (N.m@rpm) | 142@4000 rpm | 270@2000/4200 rpm | |
Battery | Energy capacity/Max. Power (kWh/kW) | 1.3/25 | - |
Initial SOC | 60% | - | |
Accessories | Power (W) | 1000 | 1000 |
2.2. Driving Conditions
Driving cycle | Time (s) | Distance (km) | Average speed (km/h) | Max. speed (km/h) | Average accel. (m/s2) | Max. accel./decel. (m/s2) | Max. VSP (W/kg) | # Stops | Grade |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NEDC (synthetic) | 1184 | 10.9 | 33.2 | 120 | 0.54 | 1.06/−1.39 | 25.6 | 13 | No |
WLTP (synthetic) | 1800 | 23.26 | 46.5 | 131 | 0.42 | 1.75/−1.48 | 30.1 | 8 | No |
BL (urban) | 4630 | 20 | 15.5 | 81 | 0.81 | 4.44/−6.11 | 57.7 | 83 | Yes |
LC (combined, with high extra-urban share) | 2705 | 34.2 | 45.5 | 115 | 0.69 | 3.89/−10.28 | 49.2 | 17 | Yes |
3. Life Cycle Environmental Analysis
Energy k | Energy (MJ/MJfinal) yEk | CO2eq (g/MJfinal) yek | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average | Min | Max | Average | Min | Max | |
Diesel | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.18 | 14.2 | 12.6 | 16 |
Gasoline | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 12.5 | 11.1 | 14.6 |
Component j | Abbreviation | Energy (MJ/kgcomponent) zEi,j | CO2eq (gCO2eq/kgcomponent) zei,j |
---|---|---|---|
ICE system | ICE | 48.13 | 2840 |
Motor & controller/generator | MC, GC | 159.09 | 10,094 |
Battery (Lithium) | BAT | 224.71 | 13,438 |
Battery (NiMh) | 205.15 | 11,719 |
3.1. Fuel Cycle—Well-to-Wheel
3.2. Materials Cycle—Cradle-to-Grave
Components | Replacements (recommended service/km) |
---|---|
Pneumatics 1 | 1–10 (96,560–64,373) |
Engine oil 1,2 | 23–133 (4828–8047) |
Transmission oil 1 | 1 (average) |
Brakes oil 1,2 | 2–25 (64,373–2 years) |
Wind shield fluid 1 | 14–79 (51,206–18,170) |
Powertrain Coolant 1,2 | 1–20 (80,467–3 years) |
Lead-acid battery 3 | 2 (average) |
Li-ion/NiMh battery 3 | 1–3 (28,1635–187,756) |
4. Financial Analysis
5. Optimization of the Hybrid Powertrain
5.1. Problem Formulation
Optimization variables | Variables values range |
---|---|
ICEmodel | {1, 2, 3, 4} |
ICEsize | [0.5, 2] |
GCmodel | {1} |
GCsize | [0.5, 2] |
MCmodel | {1, 2, 3, 4} |
MCsize | [0.5, 2] |
BATmodel | {1, 2, 3, 4} |
BATmodules | [5, 100] |
Components | Components models | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
ICE model | ICE_1 a | ICE_2 b | ICE_3 c | ICE_4 d |
Power (kW) | 43 | 73 | 66 | 50 |
Weight (kg) | 137 | 173 | 158 | 130 |
MC model | MC_1 e | MC_2 f | MC_3 g | MC_4 h |
Power (kW) | 64 | 18 | 104 | 76 |
Weight (kg) | 57 | 57 | 102 | 57 |
GC model | GC_1 i | |||
Power (kW) | 38 | |||
Weight (kg) | 33 | |||
BAT model | BAT_1 j | BAT_2 k | BAT_3 l | BAT_4 m |
Min./Max. voltage (V) | 2.5/4.1 | 2.7/4.2 | 6/9 | 10.25/14 |
Capacity (Ah) | 7 | 40 | 5.5 | 34 |
Weight (kg) | 0.35 | 1 | 1.04 | 9 |
Type | Cell | Cell | Module | Module |
Chemistry | Li-ion | Li-ion | NiMh | NiMh |
5.2. Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithm
- (1)
- Initially, a random parent population of size n individuals, is created, P0.
- (2)
- The population is evaluated and sorted based on the non-domination concept.
- (3)
- A combined population Rt with the size of 2n is formed: Rt = Pt ∪ Qt.
- (4)
- A generation is complete, and now the new population Pt+1 become a parent population and the process is repeated. The final non-dominated set, the Pareto front, is achieved if one of the stopping criteria is reached: maximum number of generations (200), or if an average change in the spread of the Pareto front over a specified number of generations (150) is less than a specified tolerance (0.001).
5.3. Multi Criteria Score Approach
6. Results and Discussion
ICE | MC | GC | BAT | Vehicle mass | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model * | Size * | (kW) | Model * | Size * | (kW) | Size * | (kW) | Model * | Modules * | (kW) | (kWh) | (kg) | ||
NEDC | A1 | 2 | 0.70 | 51 | 1 | 0.96 | 61 | 0.58 | 22 | 2 (Li-ion) | 69 | 145 | 9.9 | 1408 |
A2 | 2 | 0.69 | 50 | 1 | 0.72 | 46 | 0.51 | 19 | 3 (NiMh) | 59 | 56 | 2.5 | 1384 | |
BL | B1 | 2 | 0.89 | 64 | 3 | 0.75 | 78 | 0.74 | 28 | 4 (NiMh) | 59 | 310 | 24.5 | 1924 |
B2 | 2 | 1.09 | 79 | 1 | 1.51 | 96 | 0.81 | 30 | 4 (NiMh) | 42 | 221 | 17.5 | 1813 | |
B3 | 2 | 1.48 | 107 | 1 | 1.75 | 112 | 1.18 | 44 | 3 (NiMh) | 78 | 74 | 3.3 | 1601 | |
LC | C1 | 2 | 0.73 | 54 | 1 | 1.08 | 69 | 1.36 | 51 | 2 (Li-ion) | 70 | 148 | 10.1 | 1449 |
C2 | 2 | 0.79 | 57 | 3 | 0.55 | 57 | 1.32 | 50 | 3 (NiMh) | 47 | 44 | 1.9 | 1427 |
Life cycle energy use (LE) and CO2eq emissions (Le) | |||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Driving cycle | Vehicle | 200,000 kmlifetime | 550,000 kmlifetime | 650,000 kmlifetime | |||||||||||||||
LE (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | LE (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | LE (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | ||||||||||||||
av. | min | max | av. | min | max | av. | min | max | av. | min | max | av. | min | max | av. | min | max | ||
NEDC | A1 | 2.23 | 2.04 | 2.45 | 164 | 153 | 182 | 1.86 | 1.72 | 2.02 | 136 | 127 | 147 | 1.83 | 1.69 | 1.99 | 134 | 125 | 145 |
A2 | 2.31 | 2.12 | 2.52 | 169 | 158 | 186 | 1.96 | 1.81 | 2.12 | 143 | 134 | 154 | 1.93 | 1.79 | 2.09 | 141 | 132 | 152 | |
HEV | 2.31 | 2.11 | 2.53 | 171 | 157 | 187 | 1.97 | 1.82 | 2.14 | 145 | 134 | 157 | 1.95 | 1.80 | 2.11 | 143 | 132 | 155 | |
ICEV | 3.44 | 3.24 | 3.64 | 264 | 248 | 282 | 3.18 | 2.98 | 3.38 | 243 | 226 | 260 | 3.15 | 2.95 | 3.35 | 241 | 224 | 258 | |
BL | B1 | 4.28 | 3.51 | 5.08 | 290 | 249 | 341 | 3.23 | 2.84 | 3.64 | 227 | 206 | 253 | 3.14 | 2.78 | 3.52 | 222 | 202 | 246 |
B2 | 4.18 | 3.57 | 4.82 | 290 | 257 | 334 | 3.34 | 3.00 | 3.71 | 238 | 219 | 262 | 3.27 | 2.95 | 3.61 | 234 | 216 | 256 | |
B3 | 4.00 | 3.69 | 4.34 | 290 | 273 | 319 | 3.56 | 3.31 | 3.84 | 259 | 245 | 279 | 3.52 | 3.28 | 3.80 | 257 | 242 | 276 | |
HEV | 3.36 | 3.09 | 3.65 | 247 | 229 | 269 | 3.02 | 2.81 | 3.26 | 221 | 205 | 239 | 3.00 | 2.78 | 3.23 | 219 | 203 | 237 | |
ICEV | 5.93 | 5.58 | 6.29 | 454 | 425 | 486 | 5.67 | 5.32 | 6.02 | 433 | 404 | 464 | 5.65 | 5.30 | 6.00 | 431 | 402 | 462 | |
LC | C1 | 2.38 | 2.18 | 2.61 | 175 | 163 | 193 | 1.99 | 1.84 | 2.16 | 145 | 136 | 157 | 1.96 | 1.81 | 2.12 | 143 | 134 | 155 |
C2 | 2.44 | 2.25 | 2.64 | 179 | 168 | 196 | 2.08 | 1.93 | 2.25 | 152 | 143 | 163 | 2.05 | 1.90 | 2.21 | 149 | 141 | 161 | |
HEV | 2.54 | 2.32 | 2.77 | 188 | 173 | 204 | 2.20 | 2.04 | 2.39 | 161 | 149 | 175 | 2.18 | 2.01 | 2.35 | 159 | 147 | 172 | |
ICEV | 3.25 | 3.06 | 3.45 | 250 | 234 | 267 | 2.99 | 2.81 | 3.18 | 228 | 213 | 245 | 2.97 | 2.78 | 3.15 | 226 | 211 | 243 |
Driving cycle | Vehicle | Powertrain cost ($) | Financial gain (Fg) ($/kmlifetime) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
200,000 kmlifetime | 550,000 kmlifetime | 650,000 kmlifetime | |||
NEDC | A1 | 27,804 | −0.063 | 0.003 | 0.009 |
A2 | 9506 | 0.023 | 0.030 | 0.031 | |
HEV | 13,793 | 0 | 0.021 | 0.022 | |
ICEV | 7072 | - | - | - | |
BL | B1 | 49,031 | −0.114 | 0.019 | 0.031 |
B2 | 37,541 | −0.070 | 0.027 | 0.036 | |
B3 | 14,964 | 0.017 | 0.043 | 0.045 | |
HEV | 13,793 | 0.051 | 0.073 | 0.074 | |
ICEV | 7072 | - | - | - | |
LC | C1 | 29,100 | −0.084 | −0.014 | −0.008 |
C2 | 9501 | 0.008 | 0.016 | 0.016 | |
HEV | 13,793 | −0.02 | 0 | 0.002 | |
ICEV | 7072 | - | - | - |
BL | LC | WLTP | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TTW (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | Fg ($/km) | TTW (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | Fg ($/km) | TTW (MJ/km) | Le (g/km) | Fg ($/km) | |
ICEV | 4.70 | 433 | - | 2.39 | 228 | - | 2.37 | 227 | - |
HEV | 2.42 | 221 | 0.073 | 1.70 | 161 | 0 | 1.59 | 155 | 0.002 |
B1 | 2.24 | 227 | 0.019 | 1.97 | 190 | −0.082 | 2.23 | 205 | −0.099 |
B2 | 2.45 | 238 | 0.027 | 2.19 | 201 | −0.075 | 2.15 | 193 | −0.073 |
B3 | 2.84 | 259 | 0.044 | 2.48 | 214 | −0.052 | 2.41 | 201 | −0.049 |
C1 | 1.73 | 150 | 0.089 | 1.49 | 145 | −0.014 | 1.52 | 134 | −0.017 |
C2 | 2.20 | 188 | 0.094 | 1.58 | 152 | 0.016 | 1.58 | 137 | 0.016 |
Vehicle | Veh. cost | Total of points (BL, LC and WLTP) | Ranking | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TTW | Le | Fg | Total score | |||
HEV | 5 (#2) | 14 (#3) | 15 (#3) | 17 (#2) | 42 | #3 |
B1 | 1 (#6) | 12 (#4) | 10 (#4) | 2 (#6) | 18 | #4 |
B2 | 2 (#5) | 10 (#5) | 10 (#4) | 3 (#5) | 18 | #5 |
B3 | 4 (#4) | 6 (#6) | 7 (#6) | 4 (#4) | 14 | #6 |
C1 | 3 (#3) | 21 (#1) | 21 (#1) | 6 (#3) | 44 | #2 |
C2 | 6 (#1) | 18 (#2) | 18 (#2) | 21 (#1) | 54 | #1 |
7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
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Castel-Branco, A.P.; Ribau, J.P.; Silva, C.M. Taxi Fleet Renewal in Cities with Improved Hybrid Powertrains: Life Cycle and Sensitivity Analysis in Lisbon Case Study. Energies 2015, 8, 9509-9540. https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099509
Castel-Branco AP, Ribau JP, Silva CM. Taxi Fleet Renewal in Cities with Improved Hybrid Powertrains: Life Cycle and Sensitivity Analysis in Lisbon Case Study. Energies. 2015; 8(9):9509-9540. https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099509
Chicago/Turabian StyleCastel-Branco, António P., João P. Ribau, and Carla M. Silva. 2015. "Taxi Fleet Renewal in Cities with Improved Hybrid Powertrains: Life Cycle and Sensitivity Analysis in Lisbon Case Study" Energies 8, no. 9: 9509-9540. https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099509