Is Biochar from the Torrefaction of Sewage Sludge Hazardous Waste?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Biochar Production from Sewage Sludge
2.2. Determination of Physical and Chemical Properties of Sewage Sludge and Produced Biochars
2.3. Determination of Heavy Metal Leachability from Sewage Sludge and Produced Biochars
2.4. Toxicity Bioassay Using Biochar
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The Leachability of Biochars Obtained from Sewage Sludge via Torrefaction
3.2. The Influences of Temperature and Time of the Torrefaction on Heavy Metal Content in Biochars from Sewage Sludge
3.3. Heavy Metal Leachability from Biochars in Relation to Torrefaction Temperature and Retention Time
Times, Min | Temperature, °C | Mass Yield, % | pH | Cu | Mn | Cd | Pb | Zn | Cr | Ni | Cu | Mn | Cd | Pb | Zn | Cr | Ni |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg·kg−1 d.m. | leachability | ||||||||||||||||
Sewage Sludge | 7.2 | − | 0.93 | 0.49 | 1.73 | 2.68 | − | − | − | 0.8% | 6.1% | 2.4% | 1.3% | − | − | ||
20 | 200 | 94 | 7.4 | 0.01 | 0.84 | 0.53 | 2.08 | 1.11 | − | − | − | 0.7% | 7.0% | 2.4% | 0.5% | − | − |
20 | 220 | 94 | 7.3 | 0.23 | 0.81 | 0.54 | 2.60 | 0.87 | − | − | 0.7% | 0.7% | 5.6% | 3.5% | 0.4% | − | − |
20 | 240 | 94 | 7.2 | − | 0.87 | 0.46 | 1.59 | 0.43 | − | − | − | 0.7% | 4.1% | 2.4% | 0.2% | − | − |
20 | 260 | 93 | 7.5 | − | 0.75 | 0.47 | 1.54 | 1.46 | − | − | − | 0.6% | 6.2% | 2.9% | 0.5% | − | − |
20 | 280 | 91 | 7.3 | − | 1.76 | 1.09 | 3.53 | 1.26 | − | − | − | 1.3% | 12.2% | 6.2% | 0.5% | − | − |
20 | 300 | 89 | 7.1 | − | 1.07 | 0.78 | 2.83 | 0.83 | − | − | − | 0.8% | 6.4% | 1.7% | 0.3% | − | − |
40 | 200 | 91 | 7.1 | − | 1.27 | 0.73 | 2.27 | 0.72 | − | − | − | 1.2% | 8.6% | 4.3% | 0.4% | − | − |
40 | 220 | 92 | 7.1 | − | 1.53 | 1.04 | 3.26 | 1.15 | − | − | − | 1.3% | 16.7% | 3.3% | 0.5% | − | − |
40 | 240 | 90 | 7.1 | − | 1.30 | 0.83 | 4.34 | 0.91 | − | − | − | 1.2% | 14.0% | 7.1% | 0.5% | − | − |
40 | 260 | 90 | 7.0 | − | 1.20 | 1.22 | 7.77 | 1.79 | − | − | − | 0.9% | 16.0% | 11.9% | 0.5% | − | − |
40 | 280 | 88 | 7.1 | − | 2.08 | 0.85 | 3.87 | 0.91 | − | − | − | 1.7% | 8.9% | 3.0% | 0.3% | − | − |
40 | 300 | 83 | 7.0 | − | 1.33 | 1.06 | 4.67 | 1.40 | − | − | − | 1.0% | 13.8% | 7.4% | 0.5% | − | − |
60 | 200 | 90 | 7.1 | 0.04 | 1.36 | 1.06 | 4.24 | 1.18 | − | − | 0.1% | 1.3% | 15.9% | 7.6% | 0.5% | − | − |
60 | 220 | 91 | 7.1 | − | 1.07 | 0.83 | 3.09 | 0.61 | − | − | − | 0.9% | 8.6% | 4.3% | 0.3% | − | − |
60 | 240 | 89 | 7.1 | − | 1.09 | 0.67 | 2.52 | 0.66 | − | − | − | 0.8% | 11.3% | 5.9% | 0.3% | − | − |
60 | 260 | 88 | 7.1 | 0.05 | 0.94 | 0.57 | 2.49 | 0.59 | − | − | 0.2% | 0.9% | 13.0% | 8.7% | 0.3% | − | − |
60 | 280 | 87 | 6.9 | − | 1.23 | 0.87 | 3.70 | 0.71 | − | − | − | 0.9% | 15.1% | 7.9% | 0.3% | − | − |
60 | 300 | 81 | 7.0 | − | 1.45 | 0.92 | 4.25 | 1.16 | − | − | − | 1.2% | 15.8% | 11.7% | 0.5% | − | − |
Hazardous waste threshold value * | − | − | 50 | − | 1 | 10 | 50 | 10 | 10 | − | − | − | − | − | − | − |
3.4. SS Biochars’ Ecotoxicity in Relation to Torrefaction Temperature and Process Retention Time
4. Conclusions
- The torrefaction process did not increase the contents of HMs in the biochars in relation to the raw SS. The individual HM concentrations in the biochars were not significantly dependent on the process temperature and retention time. The HM content in the biochar was relatively low and fulfilled the requirements of the Polish Regulation for agricultural use of SS. However, because of the high content of Cd from 4.4 to 12.3 mg Cd·kg−1 d.m. (also present in raw SS), it excluded the biochars from agricultural use as an “organic fertilizer.”
- Consistently decreased leachability of HMs from biochar in comparison to raw SS was measured only in the case of Zn. For other metals, no such trend was visible, i.e., no significant trend for specific variants compared to raw SS.
- The leachability of Cd (12%) from torrefied SS increased compared to the untreated SS (6%), and exceeded the threshold values for hazardous waste.
- In the case of crustaceans D. magna Straus, the toxicity of water extracts from biochars was reduced (compared to the raw SS) as the temperature and residence time of torrefaction increased.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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The Property | Values ± SD | Variation Coefficient, % |
---|---|---|
dry mass (d.m.), % | 20.3 ± 0.3 | 1.48 |
Zn, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 212.6 ± 23.4 | 11.00 |
Cu, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 33.5 ± 6.2 | 18.51 |
Cr, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 3.8 ± 1.6 | 42.11 |
Mn, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 120.6 ± 12.3 | 10.20 |
Pb, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 72.0 ± 25.8 | 35.42 |
Cd, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 8.0 ± 1.3 | 16.25 |
Ni, mg·kg−1, d.m. | 10.8 ± 2.3 | 21.30 |
Process Time, Min | Temperature, °C | WDPT ± SD, s | Hydrophobicity Level |
---|---|---|---|
Dry sludge | 83 ± 14 | Slightly hydrophobic | |
20 | 200 | 222 ± 24 | Moderately hydrophobic |
220 | 340 ± 28 | Hydrophobic | |
240 | 499 ± 28 | Hydrophobic | |
260 | 559 ± 43 | Hydrophobic | |
280 | 745 ± 48 | Strongly hydrophobic | |
300 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic | |
40 | 200 | 340 ± 25 | Hydrophobic |
220 | 434 ± 35 | Hydrophobic | |
240 | 535 ± 32 | Hydrophobic | |
260 | 1482 ± 240 | Severely hydrophobic | |
280 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic | |
300 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic | |
60 | 200 | 454 ± 47 | Hydrophobic |
220 | 750 ± 37 | Strongly hydrophobic | |
240 | 2520 ± 183 | Severely hydrophobic | |
260 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic | |
280 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic | |
300 | <3600 | Extremely hydrophobic |
Time. Min | Temperature. °C | TOC | Ntot | N-NH4 | N-NO2 | N-NO3 | SO4 | Cl | Ptot (P-PO4) | PO4-P | pH | Mn | Cd | Pb | Zn | Cu | Cr | Ni |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg·dm−3 | mg·dm−3 | |||||||||||||||||
Sewage Sludge | 24,040.8 | 6660.0 | 2341.8 | 5.8 | 75.6 | 7254.0 | 1998.0 | 1378.8 | 741.6 | 7.2 | 0.97 | 0.51 | 1.80 | 2.78 | - | - | - | |
20 | 200 | 17,379.0 | 5526.0 | 1904.4 | 5.2 | 61.2 | 8784.0 | 1794.6 | 1000.8 | 759.6 | 7.4 | 0.87 | 0.55 | 2.13 | 1.14 | 0.01 | - | - |
20 | 220 | 14,275.8 | 5508.0 | 2134.8 | 5.4 | 88.2 | 6300.0 | 1992.6 | 986.4 | 725.4 | 7.3 | 0.84 | 0.55 | 2.69 | 0.90 | 0.24 | - | - |
20 | 240 | 16,250.4 | 4752.0 | 1594.8 | 6.5 | 95.4 | 7218.0 | 1834.2 | 865.8 | 469.8 | 7.2 | 0.90 | 0.48 | 1.64 | 0.44 | - | - | - |
20 | 260 | 17,226.0 | 4158.0 | 943.2 | 5.4 | 61.2 | 12,258.0 | 1116.0 | 860.4 | 457.2 | 7.5 | 0.77 | 0.48 | 1.58 | 1.50 | - | - | - |
20 | 280 | 18,630.0 | 4716.0 | 1099.8 | 6.1 | 64.8 | 16,470.0 | 988.2 | 995.4 | 495.0 | 7.3 | 1.80 | 1.11 | 3.60 | 1.29 | - | - | - |
20 | 300 | 16,273.8 | 4284.0 | 799.2 | 4.9 | 59.4 | 15,822.0 | 1463.4 | 792.0 | 478.8 | 7.1 | 1.08 | 0.79 | 2.87 | 0.85 | - | - | - |
40 | 200 | 18,410.4 | 3798.0 | 1530.0 | 5.2 | 55.8 | 17,010.0 | 1261.8 | 777.6 | 529.2 | 7.1 | 1.32 | 0.76 | 2.37 | 0.75 | - | - | - |
40 | 220 | 20,435.4 | 3150.0 | 1297.8 | 5.2 | 61.2 | 12,654.0 | 1627.2 | 687.6 | 543.6 | 7.1 | 1.55 | 1.05 | 3.30 | 1.16 | - | - | - |
40 | 240 | 19,184.4 | 3168.0 | 826.2 | 4.3 | 73.8 | 12,330.0 | 1265.4 | 646.2 | 486.0 | 7.1 | 1.33 | 0.84 | 4.42 | 0.92 | - | - | - |
40 | 260 | 18,930.6 | 3636.0 | 579.6 | 4.9 | 70.2 | 11,988.0 | 1366.2 | 822.6 | 550.8 | 7.0 | 1.24 | 1.27 | 8.07 | 1.86 | - | - | - |
40 | 280 | 9686.7 | 1548.0 | 367.2 | 2.4 | 55.8 | 8478.0 | 453.6 | 394.2 | 302.4 | 7.1 | 2.13 | 0.87 | 3.96 | 0.93 | - | - | - |
40 | 300 | 14,715.0 | 1674.0 | 284.4 | 2.2 | 45.0 | 8730.0 | 309.6 | 482.4 | 356.4 | 7.0 | 1.36 | 1.09 | 4.79 | 1.44 | - | - | - |
60 | 200 | 20,901.6 | 5148.0 | 982.8 | 8.8 | 111.6 | 9936.0 | 1279.8 | 444.6 | 394.2 | 7.1 | 1.40 | 1.09 | 4.38 | 1.22 | 0.04 | - | - |
60 | 220 | 21,378.6 | 3798.0 | 687.6 | 5.4 | 84.6 | 11,592.0 | 1252.8 | 574.2 | 369.0 | 7.1 | 1.11 | 0.85 | 3.20 | 0.63 | - | - | - |
60 | 240 | 15,427.8 | 3024.0 | 421.2 | 8.6 | 95.4 | 10,962.0 | 1323.0 | 415.8 | 221.4 | 7.1 | 1.12 | 0.69 | 2.59 | 0.68 | - | - | - |
60 | 260 | 14,554.8 | 2574.0 | 430.2 | 7.4 | 90.0 | 11,304.0 | 1476.0 | 401.4 | 207.0 | 7.1 | 0.96 | 0.58 | 2.55 | 0.60 | 0.05 | - | - |
60 | 280 | 12,049.9 | 1260.0 | 450.0 | 8.8 | 100.8 | 7992.0 | 1548.0 | 464.4 | 181.8 | 6.9 | 1.26 | 0.89 | 3.80 | 0.72 | - | - | - |
60 | 300 | 12,398.4 | 1854.0 | 655.2 | 4.9 | 86.4 | 8676.0 | 1807.2 | 379.8 | 194.4 | 7.0 | 1.48 | 0.94 | 4.35 | 1.18 | - | - | - |
1st Day Mobility Inhibitions | |||
Pollutant | Function Parameters | p | r2 |
TOC, mg·dm−3 | y = 16140.9314 + 19.5944·x | 0.3373 | 0.0542 |
Ntot, mg·dm−3 | y = 2538.7216 + 27.8626·x | 0.00006 | 0.6226 |
N-NH4, mg·dm−3 | y = 575.3784 + 10.6358·x | 0.0004 | 0.5278 |
N-NO2, mg·dm−3 | y = 5.4842 + 0.004·x | 0.7049 | 0.0086 |
N-NO3, mg·dm−3 | y = 75.6653 − 0.0016·x | 0.9882 | 0.0000 |
SO4, mg·dm−3 | y = 11288.2594 − 11.0422·x | 0.5426 | 0.0222 |
Cl, mg·dm−3 | y = 1160.6702 + 5.1987·x | 0.0344 | 0.2373 |
Ptot (P-PO4), mg·dm−3 | y = 497.8575 + 4.9533·x | 0.0001 | 0.5889 |
PO4-P, mg·dm−3 | y = 334.7252 + 2.6644·x | 0.0036 | 0.4019 |
pH | y = 7.0289 + 0.0027·x | 0.00004 | 0.6404 |
Mn, mg·dm−3 | y = 1.4295 − 0.0046·x | 0.0110 | 0.3240 |
Cd, mg·dm−3 | y = 0.9612 − 0.0036·x | 0.0037 | 0.3993 |
Pb, mg·dm−3 | y = 4.2830 − 0.0219·x | 0.0049 | 0.3805 |
Zn, mg·dm−3 | y = 0.9938 + 0.0027·x | 0.3808 | 0.0455 |
2nd Day Mobility Inhibitions | |||
Function parameters | p | r2 | |
TOC, mg·dm−3 | y = 15891.8326 + 21.4943·x | 0.3509 | 0.0513 |
Ntot, mg·dm−3 | y = 2180.3293 + 30.6487·x | 0.0001 | 0.5927 |
N-NH4, mg·dm−3 | y = 436.2804 + 11.7456·x | 0.0006 | 0.5064 |
N-NO2, mg·dm−3 | y = 5.4323 + 0.0044·x | 0.7111 | 0.0083 |
N-NO3, mg·dm−3 | y = 76.4184 − 0.0165·x | 0.8898 | 0.0012 |
SO4, mg·dm−3 | y = 11272.3512 − 8.9539·x | 0.6623 | 0.0115 |
Cl, mg·dm−3 | y = 1092.2603 + 5.7496·x | 0.0385 | 0.2283 |
Ptot (P-PO4), mg·dm−3 | y = 436.1408 + 5.4082·x | 0.0003 | 0.5523 |
PO4-P, mg·dm−3 | y = 304.7134 + 2.8447·x | 0.0066 | 0.3604 |
pH | y = 6.9924 + 0.003·x | 0.00005 | 0.6286 |
Mn, mg·dm−3 | y = 1.5122 − 0.0056·x | 0.0059 | 0.3676 |
Cd, mg·dm−3 | y = 1.0236 − 0.0043·x | 0.0018 | 0.4443 |
Pb, mg·dm−3 | y = 4.7142 − 0.0271·x | 0.0014 | 0.4590 |
Zn, mg·dm−3 | y = 0.9809 + 0.0025·x | 0.4683 | 0.0314 |
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Białowiec, A.; Pulka, J.; Styczyńska, M.; Koziel, J.A.; Kalka, J.; Jureczko, M.; Felis, E.; Manczarski, P. Is Biochar from the Torrefaction of Sewage Sludge Hazardous Waste? Materials 2020, 13, 3544. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163544
Białowiec A, Pulka J, Styczyńska M, Koziel JA, Kalka J, Jureczko M, Felis E, Manczarski P. Is Biochar from the Torrefaction of Sewage Sludge Hazardous Waste? Materials. 2020; 13(16):3544. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163544
Chicago/Turabian StyleBiałowiec, Andrzej, Jakub Pulka, Marzena Styczyńska, Jacek A. Koziel, Joanna Kalka, Marcelina Jureczko, Ewa Felis, and Piotr Manczarski. 2020. "Is Biochar from the Torrefaction of Sewage Sludge Hazardous Waste?" Materials 13, no. 16: 3544. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163544