Recent Progress in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Recycling: A Review of Recycling Methods and Reuse of Carbon Fibers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanical Recycling
3. Thermal Recycling
3.1. Pyrolysis
3.2. Fluidized Bed
4. Chemical Recycling
5. Reuse of Recycled Carbon Fibers
6. Conclusions
- Composite waste does not have a homogeneous composition, neither in terms of matrices nor in terms of reinforcements. Neither does it come in a homogeneous type, being able to find cured/partially cured prepregs, loose fibers and recycled composites or fibers. This makes adapting the process conditions and material a challenging task.
- The lack of adhesion between matrix and recycled fibers prevents a greater use of these. New approaches that improve fiber-matrix adhesion or modifications to the current processes are required to solve this critical issue.
- Processes such as electrodynamical fragmentation or microwave-assisted pyrolysis require further research before being optimized and made applicable on an industrial scale.
- Processes such as fluidized bed or solvolysis using solvents in critical conditions still require extensive research before being fully functional on a commercial scale.
- Economic and energy analysis of thermal and chemical processes should be studied in more depth. Simulation models can be developed and used to include all phases in cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment and to obtain a more accurate cost assessment against which to compare viable processes.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Chung, D.D.L. Processing-structure-property relationships of continuous carbon fiber polymer-matrix composites. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2017, 113, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koumoulos, E.P.; Trompeta, A.-F.; Santos, R.-M.; Martins, M.; dos Santos, C.M.; Iglesias, V.; Böhm, R.; Gong, G.; Chiminelli, A.; Verpoest, I.; et al. Research and Development in Carbon Fibers and Advanced High-Performance Composites Supply Chain in Europe: A Roadmap for Challenges and the Industrial Uptake. J. Compos. Sci. 2019, 3, 86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Galvez, P.; Quesada, A.; Martinez, M.A.; Abenojar, J.; Boada, M.J.L.; Diaz, V. Study of the behaviour of adhesive joints of steel with CFRP for its application in bus structures. Compos. Part B Eng. 2017, 129, 41–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiong, Z.; Wei, W.; Liu, F.; Cui, C.; Li, L.; Zou, R.; Zeng, Y. Bond behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete with basalt fibre-reinforced polymer bars. Compos. Struct. 2021, 256, 113078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, Y.; Fang, S.; Chen, J.; Ma, L.; Li, L.; Wu, X. Axial compression behavior of recycled-aggregate-concrete-filled GFRP–steel composite tube columns. Eng. Struct. 2020, 216, 110676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akbar, A.; Liew, K.M. Assessing recycling potential of carbon fiber reinforced plastic waste in production of eco-efficient cement-based materials. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 123001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galvez, P.; Lopez de Armentia, S.; Abenojar, J.; Martinez, M.A. Effect of moisture and temperature on thermal and mechanical properties of structural polyurethane adhesive joints. Compos. Struct. 2020, 247, 112443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rubino, F.; Nisticò, A.; Tucci, F.; Carlone, P. Marine application of fiber reinforced composites: A review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sauer, M. Composites market report 2019-Market developments, trends, outlook and challenges. Carbon Compos. 2019, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- The World Bank GDP per Capita Growth (Annual %). Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG?end=2020&start=2000 (accessed on 28 September 2021).
- Mazumdar, S.; Benevento, M.; Pichler, D.; Duenas, T.; Simonson, K. State of the Industry Report. American Composites Manufacturing Association, 2021; pp. 17–25. Available online: http://compositesmanufacturingmagazine.com/2021/02/2021-state-of-the-industry-report/ (accessed on 28 September 2021).
- Galvez, P.; Abenojar, J.; Martinez, M.A. Effect of moisture and temperature on the thermal and mechanical properties of a ductile epoxy adhesive for use in steel structures reinforced with CFRP. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019, 176, 107194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smoleń, J.; Godzierz, M.; Olesik, P.; Pawlik, T.; Kozioł, M. Utilization of CFRP waste as a filler in polyester resin-based composites. J. Compos. Mater. 2021, 55, 2693–2701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Obande, W.; Brádaigh, C.M.Ó.; Ray, D. Continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic acrylic-matrix composites prepared by liquid resin infusion—A review. Compos. Part B Eng. 2021, 215, 108771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulus, H.; Kaybal, H.B.; Eskizeybek, V.; Avcı, A. Enhanced Salty Water Durability of Halloysite Nanotube Reinforced Epoxy/Basalt Fiber Hybrid Composites. Fibers Polym. 2019, 20, 2184–2199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Subagia, I.D.G.A.; Kim, Y.; Tijing, L.D.; Kim, C.S.; Shon, H.K. Effect of stacking sequence on the flexural properties of hybrid composites reinforced with carbon and basalt fibers. Compos. Part B Eng. 2014, 58, 251–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheon, J.; Lee, M.; Kim, M. Study on the stab resistance mechanism and performance of the carbon, glass and aramid fiber reinforced polymer and hybrid composites. Compos. Struct. 2020, 234, 111690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiong, Z.; Wei, W.; He, S.; Liu, F.; Luo, H.; Li, L. Dynamic bond behaviour of fibre-wrapped basalt fibre-reinforced polymer bars embedded in sea sand and recycled aggregate concrete under high-strain rate pull-out tests. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 276, 122195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahrami, M.; Abenojar, J.; Martínez, M.Á. Recent progress in hybrid biocomposites: Mechanical properties, water absorption, and flame retardancy. Materials 2020, 13, 5145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gopalraj, S.K.; Kärki, T. A review on the recycling of waste carbon fibre/glass fibre-reinforced composites: Fibre recovery, properties and life-cycle analysis. SN Appl. Sci. 2020, 2, 433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mishnaevsky, L. Sustainable end-of-life management of wind turbine blades: Overview of current and coming solutions. Materials 2021, 14, 1124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Boscán, I. La Industria Eólica Pide Que se Prohíba en EUROPA el Vertido de las Palas de los Aerogeneradores. Available online: https://www.worldenergytrade.com/energias-alternativas/energia-eolica/la-industria-eolica-pide-que-se-prohiba-en-europa-el-vertido-de-las-palas-de-los-aerogeneradores (accessed on 21 October 2021).
- Jacob, A. Recycling threat to Europe’s composites industry. Reinf. Plast. 2006, 50, 71–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marsh, G. Europe gets tough on end-of-life composites. Reinf. Plast. 2003, 47, 34–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Paris Agreement. Available online: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement (accessed on 28 September 2021).
- European Commission European Climate Law Climate Action. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu-climate-action/law_en (accessed on 28 September 2021).
- European Parliament Directive 2000/53/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 18 September 2000 on end-of life vehicles. Off. J. Eur. Union 2000, 34–43.
- Bledzki, A.K.; Seidlitz, H.; Goracy, K.; Urbaniak, M.; Rösch, J.J. Recycling of carbon fiber reinforced composite polymers—Review—Part 1: Volume of production, recycling technologies, legislative aspects. Polymers 2021, 13, 300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rajak, D.K.; Pagar, D.D.; Menezes, P.L.; Linul, E. Fiber-reinforced polymer composites: Manufacturing, properties, and applications. Polymers 2019, 11, 1667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Meng, F.; McKechnie, J.; Turner, T.; Wong, K.H.; Pickering, S.J. Environmental Aspects of Use of Recycled Carbon Fiber Composites in Automotive Applications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 12727–12736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- He, D.; Soo, V.K.; Kim, H.C.; Doolan, M. Life Cycle Primary Energy Demand and Greenhouse Gas Emission benefits of vehicle lightweighting with recycled carbon fibre. Procedia CIRP 2021, 98, 43–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tapper, R.J.; Longana, M.L.; Norton, A.; Potter, K.D.; Hamerton, I. An evaluation of life cycle assessment and its application to the closed-loop recycling of carbon fibre reinforced polymers. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 184, 107665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kupski, J.; de Freitas, S.T. Design of adhesively bonded lap joints with laminated CFRP adherends: Review, challenges and new opportunities for aerospace structures. Compos. Struct. 2021, 268, 113923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nikravesh, Y.; Muralidharan, K.; Frantziskonis, G. Techno-economic assessment and design optimization of compressed air energy storage using filament wound carbon fiber reinforced plastic pressure vessels. J. Energy Storage 2021, 40, 102754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan, Y.; Takahashi, J. Development of carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics for mass-produced automotive applications in japan. J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5, 86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdallah, R.; Juaidi, A.; Sava, M.A.; Çamur, H.; Albatayneh, A. A Critical Review on Recycling Composite Waste Using Pyrolysis for Sustainable Development. Energies 2021, 14, 5748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pickering, S.J.; Turner, T.A.; Meng, F.; Morris, C.N.; Heil, J.P.; Wong, K.H.; Melendi, S. Developments in the fluidised bed process for fibre recovery from thermoset composites. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Composites and Advanced Materials Expo, CAMX 2015, Dallas, TX, USA, 27–29 October 2015; pp. 2384–2394. [Google Scholar]
- Pimenta, S.; Pinho, S.T.; Robinson, P.; Wong, K.H.; Pickering, S.J. Mechanical analysis and toughening mechanisms of a multiphase recycled CFRP. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2010, 70, 1713–1725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhu, J.H.; Chen, P.Y.; Su, M.N.; Pei, C.; Xing, F. Recycling of carbon fibre reinforced plastics by electrically driven heterogeneous catalytic degradation of epoxy resin. Green Chem. 2019, 21, 1635–1647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kumar, S.; Krishnan, S. Recycling of carbon fiber with epoxy composites by chemical recycling for future perspective: A review. Chem. Pap. 2020, 74, 3785–3807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verma, S.; Balasubramaniam, B.; Gupta, R.K. Recycling, reclamation and re-manufacturing of carbon fibres. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 2018, 13, 86–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pimenta, S.; Pinho, S.T. Recycling carbon fibre reinforced polymers for structural applications: Technology review and market outlook. Waste Manag. 2011, 31, 378–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bledzki, A.K.; Seidlitz, H.; Krenz, J.; Goracy, K.; Urbaniak, M.; Rösch, J.J. Recycling of carbon fiber reinforced composite polymers—review—part 2: Recovery and application of recycled carbon fibers. Polymers 2020, 12, 3003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ma, C.; Sánchez-Rodríguez, D.; Kamo, T. Influence of thermal treatment on the properties of carbon fiber reinforced plastics under various conditions. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2020, 178, 109199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gopalraj, S.K.; Kärki, T. A study to investigate the mechanical properties of recycled carbon fibre/glass fibre-reinforced epoxy composites using a novel thermal recycling process. Processes 2020, 8, 954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, H.; Guo, G.; Memon, S.A.; Xu, W.; Zhang, Q.; Zhu, J.H.; Xing, F. Recycling of carbon fibers from carbon fiber reinforced polymer using electrochemical method. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2015, 78, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nahil, M.A.; Williams, P.T. Recycling of carbon fibre reinforced polymeric waste for the production of activated carbon fibres. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2011, 91, 67–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, M.; Chacko, R.; Varughese, S. An Efficient Method of Recycling of CFRP Waste Using Peracetic Acid. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 1564–1571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, Y.; Nutt, S. Chemical treatment for recycling of amine/epoxy composites at atmospheric pressure. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2018, 153, 307–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meng, F.; McKechnie, J.; Turner, T.A.; Pickering, S.J. Energy and environmental assessment and reuse of fluidised bed recycled carbon fibres. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2017, 100, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yazdanbakhsh, A.; Bank, L.C. A critical review of research on reuse of mechanically recycled FRP production and end-of-life waste for construction. Polymers 2014, 6, 1810–1826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kouparitsas, C.E.; Kartalis, C.N.; Varelidis, P.C.; Tsenoglou, C.J.; Papaspyrides, C.D. Recycling of the fibrous fraction of reinforced thermoset composites. Polym. Compos. 2002, 23, 682–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ogi, K.; Nishikawa, T.; Okano, Y.; Taketa, I. Mechanical properties of ABS resin reinforced with recycled CFRP. Adv. Compos. Mater. Off. J. Japan Soc. Compos. Mater. 2007, 16, 181–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okayasu, M.; Yamazaki, T.; Ota, K.; Ogi, K.; Shiraishi, T. Mechanical properties and failure characteristics of a recycled CFRP under tensile and cyclic loading. Int. J. Fatigue 2013, 55, 257–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, J.; Ghita, O.R.; Savage, L.; Evans, K.E. Successful closed-loop recycling of thermoset composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2009, 40, 490–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, T.A.; Pickering, S.J.; Warrior, N.A. Development of recycled carbon fibre moulding compounds-Preparation of waste composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2011, 42, 517–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, H.; Ohsawa, I.; Takahashi, J. Effect of plasma surface treatment of recycled carbon fiber on carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) interfacial properties. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2015, 328, 241–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roux, M.; Eguémann, N.; Dransfeld, C.; Thiébaud, F.; Perreux, D. Thermoplastic carbon fibre-reinforced polymer recycling with electrodynamical fragmentation: From cradle to cradle. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 2017, 30, 381–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamamoto, T.; Makino, Y.; Uematsu, K. Improved mechanical properties of PMMA composites: Dispersion, diffusion and surface adhesion of recycled carbon fiber fillers from CFRP with adsorbed particulate PMMA. Adv. Powder Technol. 2017, 28, 2774–2778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salas, A.; Medina, C.; Vial, J.T.; Flores, P.; Canales, C.; Tuninetti, V.; Jaramillo, A.F.; Meléndrez, M.F. Ultrafast carbon nanotubes growth on recycled carbon fibers and their evaluation on interfacial shear strength in reinforced composites. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 5000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirayama, D.; Saron, C.; Botelho, E.C.; Costa, M.L.; Junior, A.C.A. Polypropylene composites manufactured from recycled carbon fibers from aeronautic materials waste. Mater. Res. 2017, 20, 526–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, D. Development of Chemical Processes for the Recycling of Carbon Fiber/Epoxy Composites; UCLA: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Pickering, S.J. Recycling technologies for thermoset composite materials-current status. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2006, 37, 1206–1215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naqvi, S.R.; Prabhakara, H.M.; Bramer, E.A.; Dierkes, W.; Akkerman, R.; Brem, G. A critical review on recycling of end-of-life carbon fibre/glass fibre reinforced composites waste using pyrolysis towards a circular economy. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 136, 118–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bradna, P.; Zima, J. Compositional analysis of epoxy matrices of carbon-fibre composites by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 1992, 24, 75–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meyer, L.O.; Schulte, K.; Grove-Nielsen, E. CFRP-recycling following a pyrolysis route: Process optimization and potentials. J. Compos. Mater. 2009, 43, 1121–1132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Greco, A.; Maffezzoli, A.; Buccoliero, G.; Caretto, F.; Cornacchia, G. Thermal and chemical treatments of recycled carbon fibres for improved adhesion to polymeric matrix. J. Compos. Mater. 2013, 47, 369–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stoeffler, K.; Andjelic, S.; Legros, N.; Roberge, J.; Schougaard, S.B. Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) composites reinforced with recycled carbon fiber. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2013, 84, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López, F.A.; Rodríguez, O.; Alguacil, F.J.; García-Díaz, I.; Centeno, T.A.; García-Fierro, J.L.; González, C. Recovery of carbon fibres by the thermolysis and gasification of waste prepreg. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2013, 104, 675–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.W.; Lee, H.M.; An, J.H.; Chung, D.C.; An, K.H.; Kim, B.J. Recycling and characterization of carbon fibers from carbon fiber reinforced epoxy matrix composites by a novel super-heated-steam method. J. Environ. Manag. 2017, 203, 872–879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mazzocchetti, L.; Benelli, T.; D’Angelo, E.; Leonardi, C.; Zattini, G.; Giorgini, L. Validation of carbon fibers recycling by pyro-gasification: The influence of oxidation conditions to obtain clean fibers and promote fiber/matrix adhesion in epoxy composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2018, 112, 504–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Limburg, M.; Stockschläder, J.; Quicker, P. Thermal treatment of carbon fibre reinforced polymers (Part 1: Recycling). Waste Manag. Res. 2019, 37, 73–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wu, T.; Zhang, W.; Jin, X.; Liang, X.; Sui, G.; Yang, X. Efficient reclamation of carbon fibers from epoxy composite waste through catalytic pyrolysis in molten ZnCl2. RSC Adv. 2019, 9, 377–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdou, T.R.; Junior, A.B.B.; Espinosa, D.C.R.; Tenório, J.A.S. Recycling of polymeric composites from industrial waste by pyrolysis: Deep evaluation for carbon fibers reuse. Waste Manag. 2021, 120, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lester, E.; Kingman, S.; Wong, K.H.; Rudd, C.; Pickering, S.; Hilal, N. Microwave heating as a means for carbon fibre recovery from polymer composites: A technical feasibility study. Mater. Res. Bull. 2004, 39, 1549–1556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, S.; He, L.; Liu, J.; Liu, Y.; Rudd, C.; Liu, X. Recovery of carbon fibre from waste prepreg via microwave pyrolysis. Polymers 2021, 13, 1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jiang, J.; Deng, G.; Chen, X.; Gao, X.; Guo, Q.; Xu, C.; Zhou, L. On the successful chemical recycling of carbon fiber/epoxy resin composites under the mild condition. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2017, 151, 243–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borjan, D.; Knez, Ž.; Knez, M. Recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced composites— difficulties and future perspectives. Materials 2021, 14, 4191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morales Ibarra, R.; Sasaki, M.; Goto, M.; Quitain, A.T.; García Montes, S.M.; Aguilar-Garib, J.A. Carbon fiber recovery using water and benzyl alcohol in subcritical and supercritical conditions for chemical recycling of thermoset composite materials. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2014, 17, 369–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xing, M.; Li, Y.; Zhao, L.; Song, X.; Fu, Z.; Du, Y.; Huang, X. Swelling-enhanced catalytic degradation of brominated epoxy resin in waste printed circuit boards by subcritical acetic acid under mild conditions. Waste Manag. 2020, 102, 464–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piñero-Hernanz, R.; Dodds, C.; Hyde, J.; García-Serna, J.; Poliakoff, M.; Lester, E.; Cocero, M.J.; Kingman, S.; Pickering, S.; Wong, K.H. Chemical recycling of carbon fibre reinforced composites in nearcritical and supercritical water. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2008, 39, 454–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamaguchi, A.; Hashimoto, T.; Kakichi, Y.; Urushisaki, M.; Sakaguchi, T.; Kawabe, K.; Kondo, K.; Iyo, H. Recyclable carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) containing degradable acetal linkages: Synthesis, properties, and chemical recycling. J. Polym. Sci. Part A Polym. Chem. 2015, 53, 1052–1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Cui, X.; Ge, H.; Yang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, C.; Li, J.; Deng, T.; Qin, Z.; Hou, X. Chemical Recycling of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites via Selective Cleavage of the Carbon-Nitrogen Bond. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2015, 3, 3332–3337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, K.; Shi, Q.; Dunn, M.L.; Wang, T.; Qi, H.J. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoset Composite with Near 100% Recyclability. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016, 26, 6098–6106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yan, H.; Lu, C.X.; Jing, D.Q.; Chang, C.B.; Liu, N.X.; Hou, X.L. Recycling of carbon fibers in epoxy resin composites using supercritical 1-propanol. Xinxing Tan Cailiao/New Carbon Mater. 2016, 31, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Henry, L.; Schneller, A.; Doerfler, J.; Mueller, W.M.; Aymonier, C.; Horn, S. Semi-continuous flow recycling method for carbon fibre reinforced thermoset polymers by near- and supercritical solvolysis. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2016, 133, 264–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, T.; Zhang, M.; Guo, X.; Liu, C.; Liu, T.; Xin, J.; Zhang, J. Mild chemical recycling of aerospace fiber/epoxy composite wastes and utilization of the decomposed resin. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 139, 20–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oliveux, G.; Bailleul, J.L.; Gillet, A.; Mantaux, O.; Leeke, G.A. Recovery and reuse of discontinuous carbon fibres by solvolysis: Realignment and properties of remanufactured materials. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2016, 139, 99–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cheng, H.; Huang, H.; Zhang, J.; Jing, D. Degradation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer using supercritical fluids. Fibers Polym. 2017, 18, 795–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okajima, I.; Watanabe, K.; Haramiishi, S.; Nakamura, M.; Shimamura, Y.; Sako, T. Recycling of carbon fiber reinforced plastic containing amine-cured epoxy resin using supercritical and subcritical fluids. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2016, 119, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaabani, C.; Weiss-Hortala, E.; Soudais, Y. Impact of Solvolysis Process on Both Depolymerization Kinetics of Nylon 6 and Recycling Carbon Fibers from Waste Composite. Waste Biomass Valorization 2017, 8, 2853–2865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sokoli, H.U.; Beauson, J.; Simonsen, M.E.; Fraisse, A.; Brøndsted, P.; Søgaard, E.G. Optimized process for recovery of glass- and carbon fibers with retained mechanical properties by means of near- and supercritical fluids. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2017, 124, 80–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okajima, I.; Sako, T. Recycling fiber-reinforced plastic using supercritical acetone. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2019, 163, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, M.; Kim, D.H.; Park, J.J.; You, N.H.; Goh, M. Fast chemical recycling of carbon fiber reinforced plastic at ambient pressure using an aqueous solvent accelerated by a surfactant. Waste Manag. 2020, 118, 190–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khalil, Y.F. Sustainability assessment of solvolysis using supercritical fluids for carbon fiber reinforced polymers waste management. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2019, 17, 74–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van de Werken, N.; Reese, M.S.; Taha, M.R.; Tehrani, M. Investigating the effects of fiber surface treatment and alignment on mechanical properties of recycled carbon fiber composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2019, 119, 38–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sukanto, H.; Raharjo, W.W.; Ariawan, D.; Triyono, J. Carbon fibers recovery from CFRP recycling process and their usage: A review. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 1034, 012087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mantelli, A.; Romani, A.; Suriano, R.; Diani, M.; Colledani, M.; Sarlin, E.; Turri, S.; Levi, M. UV-assisted 3D printing of polymer composites from thermally and mechanically recycled carbon fibers. Polymers 2021, 13, 726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Takahashi, J.; Matsutsuka, N.; Okazumi, T.; Uzawa, K.; Ohsawa, I.; Yamaguchi, K.; Kitano, A. Mechanical properties of recycled CFRP by injection molding method. In Proceedings of the ICCM International Conferences on Composite Materials, Kyoto, Japan, 8–13 July 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Wong, K.H.; Mohammed, D.S.; Pickering, S.J.; Brooks, R. Effect of coupling agents on reinforcing potential of recycled carbon fibre for polypropylene composite. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2012, 72, 835–844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akonda, M.H.; Lawrence, C.A.; Weager, B.M. Recycled carbon fibre-reinforced polypropylene thermoplastic composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2012, 43, 79–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giorgini, L.; Benelli, T.; Mazzocchetti, L.; Leonardi, C.; Zattini, G.; Minak, G.; Dolcini, E.; Cavazzoni, M.; Montanari, I.; Tosi, C. Recovery of carbon fibers from cured and uncured carbon fiber reinforced composites wastes and their use as feedstock for a new composite production. Polym. Compos. 2015, 36, 1084–1095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onwudili, J.A.; Miskolczi, N.; Nagy, T.; Lipóczi, G. Recovery of glass fibre and carbon fibres from reinforced thermosets by batch pyrolysis and investigation of fibre re-using as reinforcement in LDPE matrix. Compos. Part B Eng. 2016, 91, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrzejewski, J.; Misra, M.; Mohanty, A.K. Polycarbonate biocomposites reinforced with a hybrid filler system of recycled carbon fiber and biocarbon: Preparation and thermomechanical characterization. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matrenichev, V.; Belone, M.C.L.; Palola, S.; Laurikainen, P.; Sarlin, E. Resizing approach to increase the viability of recycled fibre-reinforced composites. Materials 2020, 13, 5773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, H.; Liu, W.; Liu, Z. An additive manufacturing-based approach for carbon fiber reinforced polymer recycling. CIRP Ann. 2020, 69, 33–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yao, S.S.; Jin, F.L.; Rhee, K.Y.; Hui, D.; Park, S.J. Recent advances in carbon-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites: A review. Compos. Part B Eng. 2018, 142, 241–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Material | Grinding Equipment | Size | Contribution | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
GFR 1 polyester, CFR 2 epoxy and epoxy-based aramid fibers composites | Mini granulator + sieves from 1 to 5.5 mm | 4–9 mm length, 8–12 μm diameter. (l/dexp > l/dcrit) | Introduction of mechanically recycled fibers in thermoplastic matrices (ethylene and methacrylic acid/propylene copolymer) | [52] |
CFR epoxy | Rotating blade with a sieve/ball mill | 1–10 mm 1–10 μm | ABS 3 matrix with recycled CFRP | [53,54] |
GFR polyester (SMC 4) | Hammer mill. Sorting by air cascade | 2–25 mm | Introduction of recycled fibers for DMC 5 | [55] |
CFR epoxy with different fiber types (woven, UD 6, ±45°). Several curing stages | Slow speed granulator + sieving | 600 μm–11.2 mm | Study of granulator effectiveness | [56] |
Commercial rCF (by depolymerization) | - | 7 mm length | Enhancement of rCF-matrix adhesion with plasma treatments | [57] |
CFR PEEK 7 | Electronic equipment + sieving | 2–10 mm length, 0.16–2 mm thickness | Electrodynamical fragmentation as an alternative to mechanical shredding | [58] |
CFR epoxy | Microfine mill | 20–100 μm | Absorption of PMMA 8 particles to improve adhesion with the new matrix | [59] |
FRP | Reactor | Pyrolysis | Oxidation | Contribution | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T (°C) | Time | Gas | |||||
CFR epoxy | Py-GC/MS 1 | 700 | – | – | – | Study of two composite materials | [65] |
CFR epoxy | TGA 2 | 900 | Variable | N2 3 | Air at 600 °C | Optimization of the pyrolysis cycle | [66] |
CFR polybenzoxazine | Fixed-bed batch | 350–700 | 1 h | N2 | Air at 500 and 700 °C | Recovery of activated carbon fibers | [47] |
CFR epoxy | Furnace | 550 | 20 min 500 °C, 90 min 550 °C | N2 | CO2 4 + O2 5 + air + H2O 6 at 550–700 °C | Chemical post-treatment in HNO3 7 | [67] |
CFR epoxy cured, uncured and contaminated | Batch furnace, commercial process | <400 | Sample dependent | – | – | PPS 8 material (thermoplastic) with rCF | [68] |
CFR polybenzoxazine | Pilot-scale facility | 500–700 | – | – | Gasification in air at 500 °C | Process optimization | [69] |
CFR epoxy | Fixed bed reactor | 550 | 30 min | H2O | Air at 550 °C for 30 to 75 min | Carbon fiber recovery by super-heated steam method | [70] |
Cured and uncured epoxy CFR cuts | Pilot plant batch | 500 | 150 min | N2 | Air at 500–600 °C for 10 to 60 min | Recovery of recycled fibers and production of new composites | [71] |
CFR epoxy | TGA | 500–1000 | Variable | N2/ CO2 | – | Use of CO2 and water vapor to remove char | [72] |
CFR epoxy | Furnace | 360 | 80 min | Air | – | Carbon fibers recovery through catalytic pyrolysis in molten ZnCl2 9 | [73] |
CFR epoxy | Cone calorimeter (batch reactor) | 550 | 20–25 min | – | – | Recovery of carbon fibers from discarded UD composites | [45] |
CFR epoxy | TGA and furnace | 300–700 | 60–120 min | N2 | – | Process optimization | [74] |
Chemical Agents | Reaction Conditions | Tensile Strength Retention | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Nearcritical and supercritical water | 250–400 °C, 4–27 MPa, 1–30 min | 90–98% | [81] |
Water + benzyl alcohol | 400 °C, 1 h | – | [79] |
NaCl 1 dissolution | Electrochemical (4–25 mA) | 80% | [46] |
Hydrochloric acid in tetrahydrofuran | Room temp., 24 h | Similar to virgin fibers | [82] |
AlCl3 2 + Acetic acid | 180 °C, 6 h | 97.77% | [83] |
Ethylene glycol | 180 °C, 4 h | 95% | [84] |
Supercritical 1-propanol with 1% KOH 3 | 330 °C, 1 h | 94.6% | [85] |
Sub- and supercritical water and water/ethanol (50:50) | 350–400 °C, 25 MPa | Similar to desized virgin fibers | [86] |
ZnCl2/KOH/HPW 4/MgCl2 5/AlCl3/FeCl3 6 + ethanol/water | 80–250 °C, 2–10 h | – | [87] |
Water/acetone (20:80) | 320 °C, 60 min | >90% | [88] |
Supercritical n-butanol | 360 °C, 1 h | 98.63% | [89] |
Supercritical acetone | 320 °C, 20 min | Negligible decrease | [90] |
Subcritical water Supercritical water | 400 °C, 15 min 280 °C, 30 min | >90% | [91] |
Peracetic acid (acetic acid + H2O2 7) | 65 °C, 4 h | Similar to virgin fibers | [48] |
Nearcritical water and supercritical acetone | 260–300 °C, 6–30 MPa | Similar to virgin fibers | [92] |
Superheated and supercritical acetone | 350 °C, 2–14 MPa, 60 min | – | [93] |
Benzyltrimethylammonium bromide (BTAB) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) | Process: 100 °C, 1 hDry: 100 °C, 24 h | 96.9% | [94] |
Feedstock | Recycling Process | New Matrix Material | Conditions for Manufacturing | Mechanical Properties (rCF or Composite) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CFR epoxy | Crushing | ABS/PP 1 | Pelletizing of CFRTP (CFRP + thermoplastic polymer) using a two-axis pelletizing machine, followed by injection moulding | Composite: 24% fiber volume fraction seems to be a limit for mechanical properties | [99] |
CFR epoxy | Mechanical cutting (chopping) | Epoxy | Fibers are converted to non-woven mats by a wet papermaking process. Compression moulding at 7 MPa | rCF: 98.1% TS 1, 95.6% TM 2 compared to virgin fibers | [38] |
CFR epoxy and CFR bismaleimide | Mechanical cutting, pyrolysis at 400 °C, cleaning with water washing, including ultrasonication + fiber drying | PPS | Pelletizing using twin-screw extruder: throughput 3 kg/h, screw speed 150 rpm, die temperature 315 °C and cooling in air. Manufacturing by moulding press at 290–305 °C | Composite: 680% TM, 720% TS, 250% impact energy increase, when compared to PPS | [68] |
CFR epoxy | Total cure of prepregs for 5 h at 100 °C. Mechanical shredding and sieving. Fluidized bed at 550 °C, followed by oxidation at 850 °C | PP | Compounding: using twin-screw extruder, L/D ratio 25:1, screw speed 50 (lower fiber damage)–80 rpm, coupling agents (2–8%) Injection moulding: nozzle temperature 200–210 °C, mould temperature 50 °C, hold pressure 12 MPa, back pressure 47.5 MPa | Composite: 150% TS increase when incorporating coupling agents (5% wt.) compared to composite with no coupling agents | [100] |
rCF from CFR epoxy | As-received: Pyrolysis at 500 °C for 10 min, and cut | PP | Carding and wrap spinning process. Hot compression moulding, at 220 °C, 2 MPa for 15 min | rCF: retains 90% TS and 93% TM compared to vCF Composite: rCFRP with 27.7% volume fraction has 50% higher TS and FS 3 compared to rCFRP with 15% volume fraction | [101] |
CFR epoxy | Crushed using rotating blade, ball milling process | ABS | Mixing, grinding and injection | Composite: Higher TS when higher content in CF, but drops dramatically at 70% (in weight) | [54] |
CFR epoxy | Mechanical cutting, pyrolysis at 500 °C followed by oxidation at 500/600 °C | Epoxy | rCF chopping, oxidation (optional), mixing with epoxy resin and hot pressing at 110 °C, 4.5 MPa, for 40 min | rCF: 65–95% TS when compared to vCF | [102] |
CFR epoxy | Solvolysis in water and acetone (20:80 in volume) | Epoxy | For rCF: manually alignment, impregnation with resin, and vacuum in bag. Cured at room temperature for 16 h and post-cured at 75–80 °C for 1 h For rCF plies: alignment, impregnation with resin, followed by curing in hot press at 60 °C, 3.5 MPa, for 5 h | rCF: >90% TS, compared to vCF | [88] |
CFR polybenzoxazine | Mechanical crushing, followed by pyrolysis at 500 °C | LDPE 4 | For blending, roll mill: speed 10–20 rpm, roll temperature 150–180 °C. Grounded and hot pressed at 34.5 MPa at 180 °C | rCF: Some combinations of rCF + additives show similar properties to vCF composites | [103] |
CFR PEEK | Electrodynamical fragmentation, 6 cycles of 100 pulses, 180 kV, frequency 5 Hz, followed by sieving | PEEK | Compression moulding, 20 ton clamping force, heated at 360 °C for 3 min, cooled at a rate of 20 °C/min | Composite: rCFRP mechanical performance is 17% lower than novel composite | [58] |
PAN-rCF | Unknown | PC 5 | Pelletizing using twin-screw extruder: screw speed 100 rpm, die temperature 230–250 °C. Injection (biocarbon fillers + rCF) at 80–120 MPa, at 250 °C | Composite: 35% TM 270% TS increase, compared to the reference PC-biocarbon composite | [104] |
CFR epoxy | Pyrolysis in molten ZnCl2 at 360 °C | Epoxy | Manual lay-up, cured at 80 °C for 2 h and at 150 °C for 4 h in oven. | rCF: 95% TS retention after pyrolysis in molten ZnCl2, 80% TS retention after pyrolysis in air, compared to vCF | [73] |
rCF | Pyrolysis. Two treatments for resizing: Acetone washing and drying in oven Acidic treatment in a bath of 65% HNO3 for 20 min at 60 °C, followed by drying in oven | PP/PA6 6 | Preparation of films with 1–5% (in weight) of solids content. Drying for 12 h at 80 °C. Chopping of fibers. Compounding in a twin-screw microcompounder at 80 rpm, 190 °C for PP, 230 °C for PA6, compounding time 1 min | Composite: No effect of PP sizing, slight positive effect of PU 7 sizing on TS and TM | [105] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Butenegro, J.A.; Bahrami, M.; Abenojar, J.; Martínez, M.Á. Recent Progress in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Recycling: A Review of Recycling Methods and Reuse of Carbon Fibers. Materials 2021, 14, 6401. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216401
Butenegro JA, Bahrami M, Abenojar J, Martínez MÁ. Recent Progress in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Recycling: A Review of Recycling Methods and Reuse of Carbon Fibers. Materials. 2021; 14(21):6401. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216401
Chicago/Turabian StyleButenegro, José Antonio, Mohsen Bahrami, Juana Abenojar, and Miguel Ángel Martínez. 2021. "Recent Progress in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Recycling: A Review of Recycling Methods and Reuse of Carbon Fibers" Materials 14, no. 21: 6401. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216401