Pilot Scale Production of Precast Concrete Elements with Wood Biomass Ash
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Wood Biomass Ash
2.2. Concrete Mix Design
2.3. Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. WBA Assessment
3.2. Influence of WBA on Fresh Concrete Properties
3.3. Influence of WBA on Hardened Concrete Properties
3.3.1. Compressive Strength
3.3.2. Capillary Absorption
3.3.3. Total Water Absorption
3.3.4. Depth of Penetration of Water under Pressure
3.3.5. Freeze–Thaw Resistance with De-Icing Salts
3.4. Assessing Feasibility of WBA Implementation as SCM in a Large-Scale Industrial Environment
4. Conclusions
- After chemical analysis of the WBAs, a predominance of CaO was found at lower density values. Higher LOI and Na2Oeq values were the main features of the fluctuating chemical compositions of the WBAs and were primarily reflected in the concrete properties in fresh and hardened states. All the WBA samples exhibited coarser particle size distribution compared to the cement sample, except for the WBA2 sample;
- SEM microscopic images showed a non-uniform structure, inhomogeneous particle surface, and particles of different shapes, with porous, non-spherical particles predominating. The WBA with the most spherical particles was WBA3;
- Based on the results of hydration analysis, prolonged setting time and lower early compressive strength of composites with WBA are expected due to the prolonged induction time, regardless of the type and chemical properties of WBA;
- Partial cement replacement with WBA did not significantly affect, i.e., reduce, the density of fresh concrete. The inconsistency in the number of pores in fresh concrete is presumably caused by higher LOI share in WBAs, affecting the stability of air content;
- As a result of the consistency tests, all concrete mixes showed the same trend of increased water demand. Utilization of WBA as a partial substitute for cement unfavorably alters the slump of concrete. The reduced workability caused by the replacement of cement by WBA is strongly dependent on the WBA type;
- Using WBA as a partial cement replacement up to 15 wt% reduced the compressive strength of concrete. An indicator of achieving higher compressive strengths with partial cement replacement is a higher sum of pozzolanic oxides;
- By adding WBA to concrete as cement replacement, capillary absorption, water absorption, and the penetration depth of water under pressure increased. In addition to the influence of alkalis, WBA could lead to a change in microstructure and thus to certain properties;
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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WBAs | Combustion Properties | Biomass | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
WBA ID | Visual check | Technology | Temperature | Wood species | |
WBA1 | Fine, grayish, powdery material visually resembling cement, no impurities found. | Biograte | 680 °C | mixed wood | |
WBA2 | Fine powdery material of light gray color visually resembling cement, no impurities were found. | grate pulverized fuel combustion | 700–750 °C | beech, oak, hornbeam, mixed wood | |
WBA3 | Fine powdery material of taupe color visually resembling cement. No impurities were found. | grate combustion | 550 °C | beech, oak, fir, and spruce | |
WBA4 | Fine powdery material of dark gray color with a smaller percentage of impurities. | grate combustion | 980 °C | beech, oak, hornbeam, poplar, ash tree | |
WBA5 | Fine powdery material of dark gray color, small amount of charred wood and larger particles were found. | grate combustion | 700 °C | beech, poplar, pine, mixed wood |
Mix ID | CM0 | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Binder | Cement [kg] | 420 | 357 | |||||
WBA | [kg] | - | 63 | |||||
[wt%] | 15 | |||||||
Aggregate | 0–4 mm [%] | 47 | ||||||
4–8 mm [%] | 26 | |||||||
8–16 mm [%] | 27 | |||||||
Admixtures | Superplasticizer [%] | 0.50 | w/b = 0.44 | |||||
Air entrainer [%] | 0.10 |
Property | Test Period | Unit | Standard |
---|---|---|---|
Density | Prior to mixing | g/cm3 | ASTM C-188-17 |
Chemical composition | wt.% | ISO/TS 16996:2015 | |
Loss on ignition (LOI) | ASTM D 7348-13 | ||
pH value | - | EN ISO 10523:2005 | |
Heat of hydration | J | HRN EN 196-11:2019 | |
Particle size distribution | μm | Laser diffraction particle size analysis | |
Particle morphology | - | Scanning electron microscope (SEM) |
State | Property | Test Period | Unit | Standard |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fresh concrete | Density | Immediately upon mixing | kg/m3 | EN 12350-6: 2019 |
Temperature | °C | EN 12350-1: 2019 | ||
Air content | % | EN 12350-7: 2019 | ||
Consistence of fresh concrete by the slump test | mm | EN 12350-2: 2019 | ||
Hardened concrete | Compressive strength | After 1 and 28 days of curing | MPa | EN 12390-3: 2019 |
Capillary absorption | After min. 28 days of age | kg/m2h0.5 | EN 13057: 2003 | |
Total water absorption | % | EN 1340:2003 | ||
Depth of penetration of water under pressure | mm | EN 12390-8: 2019 | ||
Freeze–thaw resistance with de-icing salts | After 7,14, 28, 42, and 56 cycles | kg/m2 | CEN/TS 12390-9:2016 |
WBA Samples | WBA1 | WBA2 | WBA3 | WBA4 | WBA5 | Mean Value | EN 450-1 [55] | CEM I 42.5 R | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH value | - | 12.90 | 13.51 | 13.04 | 12.89 | 12.85 | 13.04 | - | 12.66 |
LOI (950 °C) | wt.% | 6.2 | 19.7 | 8.80 | 24.1 | 5.1 | 12.78 | 9.0 | 5.5 |
P2O5 | 4.64 | 3.01 | 2.50 | 1.46 | 2.30 | 2.78 | 5.0 | 0.02 | |
Na2O | 0.84 | 1.30 | 0.56 | 0.92 | 3.01 | 1.33 | - | 0.63 | |
K2O | 8.73 | 13.82 | 4.78 | 3.50 | 6.24 | 7.41 | - | 1.16 | |
CaO | 42.75 | 51.68 | 58.24 | 54.99 | 18.97 | 45.33 | - | 51.72 | |
MgO | 5.56 | 4.57 | 3.81 | 2.86 | 3.91 | 4.14 | 4.0 | 1.49 | |
Al2O3 | 4.84 | 2.45 | 3.96 | 5.11 | 10.30 | 5.33 | - | 6.33 | |
TiO2 | 0.23 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.29 | 0.90 | 0.34 | - | 0.18 | |
Fe2O3 | 2.62 | 1.71 | 1.9 | 2.83 | 3.61 | 2.53 | - | 3.28 | |
SiO2 | 22.15 | 17.03 | 21.78 | 26.76 | 44.90 | 26.52 | - | 30.79 | |
MnO | 0.73 | 0.50 | 0,47 | 0.25 | 0.63 | 0.53 | - | 0.02 | |
SO3 | 6.93 | 3.42 | 1.84 | 1.06 | 5.24 | 3.70 | 3.0 | 4.33 | |
Na2Oeq | 6.58 | 10.39 | 3.71 | 3.22 | 7.12 | 6.20 | 5.0 | 1.39 | |
SiO2 + Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 29.61 | 21.19 | 27.64 | 34.70 | 58.81 | 34.39 | 70 | 40.4 | |
(CaO + MgO)/SiO2 | 2.18 | 3.30 | 2.85 | 2.16 | 0.51 | 2.20 | - | 1.73 |
Sample ID | Density [g/cm3] | d50 [µm] |
---|---|---|
WBA1 | 2.67 | 92.95 |
WBA2 | 2.61 | 6.10 |
WBA3 | 2.59 | 129.52 |
WBA4 | 2.47 | 61.58 |
WBA5 | 2.21 | 84.48 |
CEM | 3.01 | 24.18 |
Mix ID | CM0 | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Properties | |||||||
Density [kg/m3] | 2340 | 2260 | 2250 | 2230 | 2200 | 2230 | |
Temperature [°C] | 16.2 | 25.2 | 23.1 | 22.2 | 25.5 | 14.9 | |
Air content [%] | 5.0 | 5.2 | 4.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 4.9 | |
Consistence—Slump [mm] | 220 | 165 | 70 | 250 | 160 | 210 |
Mix ID | CM0 | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S (kg/m2√h) | 0.76 | 0.96 | 1.44 | 1.48 | 1.01 | 1.01 |
Min. value | 0.67 | 0.89 | 1.37 | 1.43 | 0.93 | 0.87 |
Max. value | 0.83 | 1.07 | 1.52 | 1.52 | 1.06 | 1.12 |
Mix ID | CM0 | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total water absorption Wa [%] | Specimen 1 | 4.4 | 5.2 | 6.4 | 6.9 | 5.9 | 6.4 |
Specimen 2 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 5.6 | 6.6 | |
Specimen 3 | 4.3 | 5.0 | 6.7 | 6.6 | 5.6 | 6.3 | |
Mean value | 4.3 | 5.3 | 6.7 | 6.8 | 5.7 | 6.4 |
Mix ID | CM0 | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LOI [%] | 5.5 | 6.2 | 19.7 | 8.80 | 24.1 | 5.1 |
Air content [%] | 5.0 | 5.2 | 4.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 4.9 |
Na2Oeq [%] | 1.39 | 6.58 | 10.39 | 3.71 | 3.22 | 7.12 |
Scaling after 28 cycles [kg/m2] | 0.10 | 0.37 | 1.51 | 1.08 | 0.25 | 1.24 |
Scaling after 56 cycles [kg/m2] | 0.22 | 0.41 | 3.09 | 1.69 | 0.30 | 1.51 |
Relevant Property | Standard Requirement | CM1 | CM2 | CM3 | CM4 | CM5 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Concrete manufacturer | Consistency—Slump [mm] | 100–150 | 165 | 70 | 250 | 160 | 210 | ||
Minimum air content [%] | 4 | 5.2 | 4.4 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 4.9 | |||
Compressive strength [MPa] | C 35/45 | 39.8 | 28.6 | 28.7 | 36.2 | 42.5 | |||
Water penetration under pressure [mm] | ≤15 | 19 | 29 | 22 | 19 | 23 | |||
Freeze–thaw resistance with de-icing salts [kg/m2] | ∆m ≤ 0.5 (56 cycles) | 0.41 | 3.09 | 1.69 | 0.3 | 1.51 | |||
EN 1340 | ∆m ≤ 1.0 (28 cycles) | 0.37 | 1.51 | 1.08 | 0.25 | 1.24 | |||
Total water absorption [%] | ≤6 | 5.3 | 6.7 | 6.8 | 5.7 | 6.4 | |||
Abrasion resistance [cm3/cm2] | ≤21 | Long-term research scope | |||||||
Bending strength [MPa] | Characteristic value | Minimum value | |||||||
≥3.5 | 2.8 | ||||||||
≥5.0 | 4.0 | ||||||||
≥6.0 | 4.8 |
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Šantek Bajto, J.; Štirmer, N.; Cerković, S.; Carević, I.; Kostanić Jurić, K. Pilot Scale Production of Precast Concrete Elements with Wood Biomass Ash. Materials 2021, 14, 6578. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216578
Šantek Bajto J, Štirmer N, Cerković S, Carević I, Kostanić Jurić K. Pilot Scale Production of Precast Concrete Elements with Wood Biomass Ash. Materials. 2021; 14(21):6578. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216578
Chicago/Turabian StyleŠantek Bajto, Jelena, Nina Štirmer, Sonja Cerković, Ivana Carević, and Karmen Kostanić Jurić. 2021. "Pilot Scale Production of Precast Concrete Elements with Wood Biomass Ash" Materials 14, no. 21: 6578. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216578