Source of Raw Materials and Its Processing for the Manufacturing of Ptolemaic Faience Bowls from Tell Atrib (Nile Delta, Egypt)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Archaeological Site
- (a)
- From the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period (sometimes also the end of the Late Period) until the first decades of the 2nd century BC,
- (b)
- The reign of Ptolemy VI and the second half of the 2nd century BC,
- (c)
- The end of the Ptolemaic Period (1st century BC) until the beginning of the Roman period (1st century BC).
2.2. Faience Objects
2.3. Preparation of Thin Sections
2.4. Digital and Polarized Light Microscopy
2.5. X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)
2.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)
2.7. Petrographic-Mineralogical Analysis
2.8. Image and Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) Analysis of the Body Layer
3.2. Petrographic-Mineralogical Analysis of the Grains
3.2.1. Quartz Grains in the Body Layer
3.2.2. Accessory Grains
- category A—grains of accessory minerals with an unchanged texture (Figure 4). These are homogenous grains, with a structure and texture unchanged in course of firing at high temperatures. The only indication of these processes is the presence of a thin reaction zone at the boundary with grains having a different mineral composition (Figure 4c,f). The created zone plays the role of cement, a mass binding the mineral grains. The category includes grains of zircon, rutile, garnet, ilmenite, titanite, monazite, apatite, olivine, magnetite, and Na-, K- and Na-Ca-feldspars (Tables S1 and S2);
- category B—grains of rock-forming minerals, often with a partly changed texture (Figure S3). The category includes grains that contain even very small relicts of the primary mineral or those grains, in which its composition can be reconstructed based on the reaction products present. These are grains or rock-forming minerals with initial stages of melting or with large fragments of the mineral without a visible structural and textural reorganization. The transformation zone depends on the chemical composition of the mineral composing the grain and the surrounding grains/substances which have reacted with it during the firing process. The reaction area forms a coating, several to over 10 µm thick or extends within the grain along structural fractures but does not change its shape. This category includes minerals from the feldspar group with the composition of albite, sodium plagioclase, potassium feldspar, as well as biotite, epidote and amphibole (Tables S1 and S2);
- category C—grains of sulphides and oxides with an unchanged texture (Figure S4). The grains do not bear signs of structural-textural transformation on their surface or in their interior. Initial reactions with the surrounding grains (Figure S4f), colour change (changes of grey shade in BSE images), or melts on the mineral surface partly visible in the glass phase (Figure S4c) can be observed only in some grains. Some transformations are linked with the resistance of structural bonds of these minerals to high firing temperatures and the resulting high melting points. The category includes: ilmenite, cassiterite and sphalerite (Tables S1 and S2);
- category D—grains of sulphides with a partly changed texture (Figure S5). These are sulphide grains or aggregates of sulphide grains with a medium and strongly changed structure and texture, characterised by the presence of a reactive halo around the primary core of the mineral grain (Figure S5a). This zone extents for a few micrometres, which results from the impact of high firing temperatures on minerals with equally high melting points. Such textures appear around the grains of Co-Cu-Sn ore minerals (Tables S1 and S2);
- category E—grains of sulphides with a changed texture (Figure S5). These are single grains or their aggregates, which have been subject to almost complete structural and textural transformation. Oval metal oxide grains occur in the cover of a secondary silica melt (Figure S5b). The transformation includes partial or complete melting of sulphides and the appearance of drop-like accumulations of Cu, Ni and Co oxides (Tables S1 and S2);
- category F—grains of metal ores with a changed texture (Figure S6). These are ore grains with silicates or aluminosilicates, in which the primary structures and textures of mineral grains have not been preserved (Figure S6a,b) or are fragmentarily preserved (Figure S6c,d). Examples of such grains are the products of the reaction between galena and silicates and the resulting Pb silicates (Figure S6a,f) or secondary minerals belonging to Pb vanadates (Figure S6a,b, Tables S1 and S2);
- category G—lithoclast grains (Figure S7). The group includes large fragments of polymineral grains with dimensions up to 300 µm. These grains have well-preserved textures allowing for distinguishing the source rock lithology. Rock fragments with a characteristic interstitial texture are common (Figure S7a,c). Moreover, lithoclasts composed of sulphide minerals characterised by a variable grain size are quite common (Figure S7a,d). A continuous succession of sulphide grains from large lithoclasts with dimensions exceeding 300 µm to single sulphide grains with dimensions up to just over 10 µm can be observed in the analysed material. Sulphide lithoclasts are characterised by a strong degree of thermal transformations resulting from firing. An almost unchanged primary texture of the sulphide aggregates can be seen in only some larger grains (Figure S7d, Tables S1 and S2).
3.2.3. Relationships of the Accessory Grains
- group A—common accessory minerals represented by zircon, apatite and monazite;
- group B—common rock-forming minerals (amphibole, feldspars, epidote, titanite, garnet, olivine, biotite, pyroxene and Al2SiO5 polymorphs;
- group C—common Fe-Ti oxides: magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, and TiO2 group minerals;
- group D—sulphides representing ore minerals.
- subgroup D1—cassiterite intergrowths with ores and polymetallic Sn-Co-Cu sulphides, in which the Sn content in the products of sulphide reaction exceeds 0.5 wt.%;
- subgroup D2—polymetallic Co-Cu-Ni sulphides, in which the Sn content in the products of sulphide reaction does not exceed 0.5 wt.%;
- subgroup D3—polymetallic Cu-dominated sulphides, sometimes with a trace amount of Bi;
- subgroup D4—polymetallic Pb-Sb-As-Cu sulphides and sulfosalts;
- subgroup D5—galena, sphalerite and polymetallic Zn-Pb-dominant sulphides.
3.2.4. Interpretation
3.3. Morphometric and Geometric Analysis of the Quartz Grains
3.3.1. Grain Size Composition
3.3.2. Grain Shape Composition
3.3.3. Roundness and Sharpness
3.3.4. Cracks and Cavities
3.3.5. Microstructural and Microtextural Evidences of Quartz Grain Processing
- Grain size
- Grain shape
- Relationships of morphometric parameters
4. Discussion
4.1. Transformation of Minerals Resulting from the Firing Temperature
4.2. Origin of the Quartz
4.3. Mining and Processing of Raw Material from Quartz Veins of the Eastern Desert
4.4. From Gold Mining in the Eastern Desert to Faience Manufacturing in Tell Atrib
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cat. no. a | Bowl Type | Dating a | Lab no. d | Characteristics of the Faience Fragment (Compare Figure 2 and Figure S1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cat. a | Others | Fragment | Material | |||
195 | A-IV | T5.2 b | mid-3rd century BC | NZA | rim and upper body | Body: 3–6 mm thick, yellow, 2.5 Y 9/2 f Glaze: ~0.3 mm thick, smooth, blue-green, 2.5 BG 8/2 |
37 | B.1 | T1 c | 2nd half of 3rd century BC | B37 | rim and upper body | Body: 5–6 mm thick, yellow, 2.5 Y 9/3 Glaze: ~0.1 mm thick, worn, blue-green, 10 BG 9/2 |
9 | B.1 | T1 c | end (?) of 3rd century BC | B9.1 e | lower body | Body: 3–4 mm thick, yellow-red, 10 Y 9/1 Glaze: ~0.15 mm thick, glossy, blue, 2.5 B 8/2 |
9 | B.1 | T1 c | end (?) of 3rd century BC | B9.2 e | lower body | Body: 3–6 mm thick, yellow, 5 Y 9/1 Glaze: 0.2–0.4 mm thick, glossy, blue-green, 5 BG 9/2 |
4 | B.1 | T1 c | end (?) of 3rd century BC | MS | base and lower body | Body: 5–6 mm thick, yellow, 2.5 Y 9/2 Glaze: ~0.3 mm thick, glossy, smooth, blue-green, 2.5 BG 9/2 |
100 | B.5 | T2.1c | end of 3rd century BC or 1st half of 2nd century BC | B100 | rim and upper body | Body: 5–7 mm thick, yellow-red, 10 YR 9/3 Glaze: 0.15–0.2 mm thick, matt, blue-green, 7.5 BG 9/2 |
81 | B.4.1 | T2.3d c | 1st half of 2nd century BC | B81 | rim and upper body | Body: 3–5 mm of thick, yellow-red, 10 YR 9/1 Glaze: ~0.1 mm thick, worn, blue-green, 10 BG 9/2 |
Grains Parameters | Lab No. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NZA | B37 | B9.1 | B9.2 | MS | B100 | B81 | |
Relative area s (%) | 55.0 | 60.9 | 62.8 | 64.0 | 63.2 | 55.7 | 66.2 |
Number Ns × 103 (−) | 51 | 111 | 42 | 65 | 18 | 37 | 42 |
Total area St × 103 (µm2) | 3638 | 3937 | 4141 | 4199 | 4233 | 3674 | 4418 |
Average area Sav (µm2) | 71 | 35 | 99 | 65 | 237 | 101 | 106 |
Total perimeter Pt × 103 (µm) | 1889 | 2608 | 1700 | 2020 | 1332 | 1341 | 1863 |
Average perimeter Pav (µm) | 37 | 24 | 41 | 31 | 75 | 37 | 45 |
Average diameter Dav (µm) | 6.1 | 4.3 | 6.0 | 5.2 | 10.0 | 5.6 | 7.5 |
Sand Ø > 50 µm (%) | 27.4 | 29.4 | 65.5 | 56.9 | 72.6 | 79.1 | 56.6 |
Silt 2 < Ø < 50 µm (%) | 72.6 | 70.5 | 34.5 | 43.1 | 27.4 | 20.9 | 43.4 |
Clay Ø < 2 µm (%) | 0 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Average form index Kfav (−) | 0.477 | 0.456 | 0.481 | 0.475 | 0.488 | 0.468 | 0.477 |
Elongated grains (%) | 1.0 | 2.1 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 1.4 |
Anisometric grains (%) | 81.6 | 82.2 | 80.8 | 80.7 | 80.7 | 82.0 | 80.4 |
Isometric grains (%) | 17.4 | 15.7 | 18.2 | 17.8 | 18.6 | 16.6 | 18.2 |
Accessory Grains | Primary Mineral, Rock | Degree, Character of Transformation | Secondary Mineral, Alloy | Indicator of Raw Materials Provenance | Firing Temperature Indicators [°C] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | Change in Texture | |||||
A accessory minerals | unchanged | zircon, rutile, garnet, ilmenite, titanite, monazite, apatite, olivine, magnetite, Na-, K- and Na-Ca feldspars | very low, thick layer of reaction | - | Host rocks: granodiorite, monzogranite, porphyry | - |
B rock-forming minerals | partially changed | albite, Na plagioclase, K feldspar, biotite, epidote, amphibole | low, initial melted | - | Host rocks, contact zone of hydrothermal vein: granodiorite, monzogranite, | Formation of perthites |
C sulphurs and oxides | unchanged | ilmenite, cassiterite, sphalerite | very low, without change | - | High and mid-temperature hydrothermal veins | - |
D sulphurs | partially changed | Co-Cu-Sn ores | low, thick layer of reaction (halo) | - | High and mid-temperature hydrothermal veins | ? |
E sulphurs | changed | sulphurs | medium and high,partially or completely melted | drops of Cu, Ni, Co oxides in silica alloy | High and mid-temperature hydrothermal vein | Exsolution textures: chalcopyrite in sphalerite ca. 550 °C |
F ores and sulfosalts | changed | Pb ores (galena), sulfosalts Pb-Sb-S with silicates or aluminosilicates | High, completely melted | Pb silicates | Low-temperature hydrothermal vein | PbS-SiO2 alloy forming at 775 °C |
G lithoclasts (lithic fragments) | unchanged, change, intersertal, porphyry | igneous and dolerite rocks, volcanic effusive rocks, sulphurs | medium and high,partially or completely melted | polymineral sulphurs alloy, Pb-P alloy Fe oxides | Surrounding rocks—source for stone tools | Dolerite rock melting starts at ca. 800 °C |
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Trzciński, J.; Zaremba, M.; Nejbert, K.; Kaproń, G. Source of Raw Materials and Its Processing for the Manufacturing of Ptolemaic Faience Bowls from Tell Atrib (Nile Delta, Egypt). Materials 2022, 15, 6251. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186251
Trzciński J, Zaremba M, Nejbert K, Kaproń G. Source of Raw Materials and Its Processing for the Manufacturing of Ptolemaic Faience Bowls from Tell Atrib (Nile Delta, Egypt). Materials. 2022; 15(18):6251. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186251
Chicago/Turabian StyleTrzciński, Jerzy, Małgorzata Zaremba, Krzysztof Nejbert, and Grzegorz Kaproń. 2022. "Source of Raw Materials and Its Processing for the Manufacturing of Ptolemaic Faience Bowls from Tell Atrib (Nile Delta, Egypt)" Materials 15, no. 18: 6251. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186251