Analysis of Several Physical Phenomena Measured on the Metallic Materials Cut by Abrasive Water Jets (AWJ)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Experimental Setup
3. Results
- the limit traverse speed;
- the coefficient modifying abrasive water jet performance according to the changing content of abrasive material below “saturation level” (above this level, the jet performance increases no more and );
- ratio between the quantity of non-damaged grains (i.e., not containing defects) and the total quantity of grains in the supplied abrasive material;
- diameter of the water nozzle (orifice);
- density of the abrasive jet (conversion to homogeneous liquid);
- pressure obtained from Bernoulli’s equation for liquid with density and velocity of the abrasive jet;
- attenuation coefficient of the abrasive jet in the environment between the focusing tube outlet and the material surface;
- stand-off distance (distance between exit of the focusing tube and material surface);
- coefficient of the abrasive water jet velocity loss in the interaction with material (experimentally determined);
- material thickness;
- density of material being machined;
- strength of material being machined;
- minimum limit traverse speed of cutting—correction for the traverse speed zero (usually is used, where is the average abrasive particle size after the mixing process inside the mixing head and focusing tube);
- material hardness;
- interaction time;
- mean size of particles (elements) of material—grains or their chips.
4. Discussion
4.1. Discussion of Theorem 1
4.2. Discussion of Theorem 2
4.3. Discussion of Theorem 3
4.4. Discussion of Theorem 4
4.5. Discussion of Theorem 5
5. Conclusions
- The measured forces in the x-axis are always lower than forces in the z-axis;
- The exerted forces are dependent on the elemental structure of the material;
- The number of carbides in steels affects the measured forces—a higher concentration of carbides results in higher forces;
- The concentration of chromium and carbon substantially affect the formation of carbides in steels and, subsequently, their response to the AWJ machining;
- Increasing the traverse speed increases both the measured forces and the vibrations;
- The measured vibrations are affected by the elemental structure of machined material;
- The vibrations are dependent on the number of carbides in steels; a higher number of carbides leads to higher vibrations;
- The vibrations in the x-axis are higher than those in the z-axis due to the gravitational force damping the movement in the z-axis in used configurations.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Rabani, A.; Madariaga, J.; Bouvier, C.; Axinte, D. An approach for using iterative learning for controlling the jet penetration depth in abrasive waterjet milling. J. Manuf. Process. 2016, 22, 99–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zohourkari, I.; Zohoor, M.; Annoni, M. Investigation of the effects of machining parameters on material removal rate in abrasive waterjet turning. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2014, 6, 624203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwartzentruber, J.; Papini, M. Abrasive waterjet micro-piercing of borosilicate glass. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2015, 219, 143–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, Z.W.; Xie, B.H.; Liao, S.P.; Zhou, J.H. Concentration degree prediction of AWJ grinding effectiveness based on turbulence characteristics and the improved ANFIS. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2015, 80, 887–905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loc, P.H.; Shiou, F.J. Abrasive water jet polishing on Zr-based bulk metallic glass. In Advanced Materials Research; Lin, Z.C., Huang, Y.M., Chen, C.C.A., Chen, L.K., Eds.; Trans Tech Publications Ltd.: Bäch, Switzerland, 2012; Volume 579, pp. 211–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paul, S.; Hoogstrate, A.M.; van Luttervelt, C.A.; Kals, H.J.J. Analytical and Experimental Modeling of Abrasive Water Jet Cutting of Ductile Materials. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 1998, 73, 189–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paul, S.; Hoogstrate, A.M.; van Luttervelt, C.A.; Kals, H.J.J. Analytical Modeling of the Total Depth of Cut in Abrasive Water Jet Machining of Polycrystalline Brittle Materials. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 1998, 73, 206–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hlaváč, L.M.; Krajcarz, D.; Hlaváčová, I.M.; Spadło, S. Precision comparison of analytical and statistical-regression models for AWJ cutting. Precis. Eng. 2017, 50, 148–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fabian, S.; Salokyová, Š. AWJ cutting: The technological head vibrations with different abrasive mass flow rates. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2013, 308, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salokyová, Š. Measurement and analysis of technological head vibrations in hydro-abrasive cutting technology. Acad. J. Manuf. Eng. 2014, 12, 90–95. [Google Scholar]
- Salokyová, Š. Measurement and analysis of mass flow and feed speed impact on technological head vibrations during cutting abrasion resistant steels with abrasive water jet technology. Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 669, 243–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hloch, S.; Ruggiero, A. Online monitoring and analysis of hydroabrasive cutting by vibration. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2013, 894561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hreha, P.; Hloch, S. Potential use of vibration for metrology and detection of surface topography created by abrasive waterjet. Int. J. Surf. Sci. Eng. 2013, 7, 135–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hreha, P.; Radvanska, A.; Knapcikova, L.; Królczyk, G.M.; Legutko, S.; Królczyk, J.B.; Hloch, S.; Monka, P. Roughness parameters calculation by means of on-line vibration monitoring emerging from AWJ interaction with material. Metrol. Meas. Syst. 2015, 22, 315–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monno, M.; Ravasi, C. The effect of cutting head vibrations on the surfaces generated by waterjet cutting. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 2005, 45, 355–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prislupčák, M.; Panda, A.; Jančík, M.; Pandová, I.; Orendáč, P.; Krenický, T. Diagnostic and Experimental Valuation on Progressive Machining Unit. In Applied Mechanics and Materials; Trans Tech Publications, Ltd.: Wallerau, Switzerland, 2014; Volume 616, pp. 191–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olejarova, S.; Krenicky, T. Water Jet Technology: Experimental Verification of the Input Factors Variation Influence on the Generated Vibration Levels and Frequency Spectra. Materials 2021, 14, 4281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Copertaro, E.; Perotti, F.; Annoni, M. Operational vibration of a waterjet focuser as means for monitoring its wear progression. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2021, 116, 1937–1949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Copertaro, C.; Perotti, F.; Castellini, P.; Chiariotti, P.; Martarelli, M.; Annoni, M. Focusing tube operational vibration as a means for monitoring the abrasive waterjet cutting capability. J. Manuf. Processes 2020, 59, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mikler, J. On use of acoustic emission in monitoring of under and over abrasion during a water jet milling process. J. Mach. Eng. 2014, 142, 104–115. [Google Scholar]
- Li, H.Y.; Geskin, E.S.; Chen, W.L. Investigation of forces exerted by an abrasive water jet on workpiece. In Proceedings of the 5th American Water Jet Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada, 29–31 August 1989; Vijay, M.M., Savanick, G.A., Eds.; National Research Council of Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada; U.S. Water Jet Technology Association: St. Louis, MI, USA, 1989; pp. 69–77. [Google Scholar]
- Kliuev, M.; Pude, F.; Stirnimann, J.; Wegener, K. Measurement of the effective waterjet diameter by means of force signals. In Proceedings of the Advances in Water Jetting—Water Jet 2019, Čeladná, Czech Republic, 20–22 November 2019; Klichová, D., Sitek, L., Hloch, S., Valentinčič, J., Eds.; Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 15–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Orbanic, H.; Junkar, M.; Bajsic, I.; Lebar, A. An instrument for measuring abrasive water jet diameter. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manu. 2009, 49, 843–849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foldyna, J.; Sitek, L.; Švehla, B.; Švehla, T. Utilization of ultrasound to enhance high-speed water jet effects. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2004, 11, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hlaváč, L.M.; Annoni, M.P.G.; Hlaváčová, I.M.; Arleo, F.; Viganò, F.; Štefek, A. Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ) Forces—Potential Indicators of Machining Quality. Materials 2021, 14, 3309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mádr, V.; Lupták, M.; Hlaváč, L. Force Sensor and Method of Force Sensing in the Process of Abrasive Water Jet. Cutting. Patent No. CZ 303189, 5 April 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Hlaváč, L.M.; Štefek, A.; Tyč, M.; Krajcarz, D. Influence of Material Structure on Forces Measured during Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ) Machining. Materials 2020, 13, 3878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hlaváč, L.M.; Bańkowski, D.; Krajcarz, D.; Štefek, A.; Tyč, M.; Młynarczyk, P. Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ) Forces—Indicator of Cutting System Malfunction. Materials 2021, 14, 1683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shi, L.P.; Fang, Y.; Dai, Q.W.; Huang, W.; Wang, X.L. Surface texturing on SiC by multiphase jet machining with microdiamond abrasives. Mater. Manuf. Process. 2018, 33, 1415–1421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehta, K.M.; Pandey, S.K.; Shaikh, V.A. Unconventional Machining of ceramic matrix Composites—A review. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 46, 7661–7669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hou, R.G.; Wang, T.; Lv, Z.; Liu, Y.Y. Experimental Study of the Ultrasonic Vibration-Assisted Abrasive Waterjet Micromachining the Quartz Glass. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 2018, 8904234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Singh, D.; Shukla, R. Multi-objective optimization of selected non-traditional machining processes using NSGA-II. Decis. Sci. Lett. 2020, 9, 421–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Debnath, S.; Kunar, S.; Anasane, S.S.; Bhattacharyya, B. Non-traditional Micromachining Processes: Opportunities and Challenges. In Non-Traditional Micromachining Processes: Fundamentals and Applications; Kibria, G., Bhattacharyya, B., Davim, J.P., Eds.; Book Series Materials Forming Machining and Tribology; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 1–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melentiev, R.; Fang, F.Z. Recent advances and challenges of abrasive jet machining. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 2018, 22, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fürbacher, I.; Macek, K.; Steidl, J. Lexikon Technických Materiálů se Zahraničními Ekvivalenty (Lexicon of Technical Materials with Foreign Equivalents), 1st ed.; Praha: Dashöfer, Czech Republic, 1998. (In Czech) [Google Scholar]
- Hlaváč, L.M.; Martinec, P. Almandine garnets as abrasive material in high-energy waterjet—Physical modelling of interaction, experiment and prediction. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Jetting Technology, Brugge, Belgium, 21–23 September 1998; Louis, H., Ed.; Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd.: London, UK, 1998; pp. 211–222. [Google Scholar]
- Hlaváč, L.M. Investigation of the abrasive water jet trajectory curvature inside the kerf. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2009, 209, 4154–4161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hlaváč, L.M. Revised Model of Abrasive Water Jet Cutting for Industrial Use. Materials 2021, 14, 4032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strnadel, B.; Hlaváč, L.M.; Gembalová, L. Effect of steel structure on the declination angle in AWJ cutting. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 2013, 64, 12–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pokusová, M.; Brúsilová, A.; Šooš, L.; Berta, I. Abrasion Wear Behavior of High-chromium Cast Iron. Arch. Foundry Eng. 2016, 16, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Atabaki, M.M.; Jafari, S.; Abdollah-pour, H. Abrasive Wear Behavior of High Chromium Cast Iron and Hadfield Steel—A Comparison. J. Iron Steel Res. 2012, 19, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Titov, V.I.; Tarasenko, L.V.; Utkina, A.N. Effect of alloying elements on the composition of carbide phases and mechanical properties of the matrix of high-carbon chromium–vanadium steel. Phys. Met. Metallogr. 2017, 118, 81–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kagawa, A.; Kawashima, S.; Ohta, Y. Wear Properties of (Fe, Cr)7C3 Carbide Bulk Alloys. Mater. Trans. Jim 1992, 33, 1171–1177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chakraborty, G.; Kumar, N.; Das, C.R.; Albert, S.K.; Bhaduri, A.K.; Dash, S.; Tyagi, A.K. Study on microstructure and wear properties of different nickel base hardfacing alloys deposited on austenitic stainless steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2014, 244, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yao, Z.; Liu, M.; Hu, H.; Tian, J.; Xu, G. Microstructure and Wear Properties of a Bainite/Martensite Multi-phase Wear Resistant Steel. ISIJ Int. 2021, 61, 434–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Material | Type | Grade | Density kg/m3 | Hardness HB Max | Yield Strength MPa |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.2379 | Tool steel | X153CrMoV12 | 7600 | 250 | 845 |
1.3343 | High speed tool steel | HS6-5-2C | 8200 | 255 | 850 |
1.4034 | Stainless steel | X46Cr13 | 7700 | 245 | 780 |
1.4404 | Stainless steel | X2CrNiMo17-12-2 | 8000 | - | 595 |
1.4541 | Stainless steel | X6CrNiTi18-10 | 7900 | - | 600 |
1.4713 | Heat resisting steel | X10CrAlSi7 | 7700 | 192 | 520 |
1.4762 | Heat resisting steel | X10CrAlSi25 | 7700 | 223 | 620 |
1.4828 | Heat resisting steel | X15CrNiSi20-12 | 7900 | 223 | 650 |
1.4845 | Heat resisting steel | X8CrNi25-21 | 7900 | 192 | 600 |
1.7225 | Alloy special steel | 42CrMo4 | 7850 | - | 1100 |
2.1176 | Bronze alloy | CuSn10Pb10 | 8900 | 65 | 180 |
3.2315 | Aluminium alloy | AlSi1MgMn | 2700 | 83 | 295 |
Used Material | Used Traverse Speeds (mm/min) |
---|---|
1.2379, 1.3343, 1.4034, 1.4404, 1.4541, 1.4713, 1.4762, 1.4828, 1.4845, 1.7225 | 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 |
2.1176 | 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 |
3.2315 | 80, 120, 160, 200, 240 |
Variable | Value |
---|---|
Pump pressure | 380 MPa |
Water nozzle diameter | 0.25 mm |
Focusing tube diameter | 0.76 mm |
Focusing tube length | 76 mm |
Abrasive mass flow rate | 250 g/min |
Abrasive material mean grain size (input) | 0.250 mm |
Abrasive material mean grain size in jet 1 | 0.024 mm |
Abrasive material type | Australian garnet (GMA80) |
Stand-off distance | 2 mm |
Material | LTS (mm/min) | TS A | TS B | TS C | TS D | TS E |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.4541 | 120 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 0.50 | 0.67 | 0.83 |
1.7225 | 110 | 0.18 | 0.36 | 0.55 | 0.73 | 0.91 |
2.1176 | 200 | 0.15 | 0.30 | 0.45 | 0.60 | 0.75 |
3.2315 | 360 | 0.22 | 0.33 | 0.44 | 0.56 | 0.67 |
Material | C | Si | Mn | P | S | Cr | Mo | V | Ni | N | Ti | Al | W |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.2379 | 1.60 | 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.030 | 0.030 | 12.0 | 0.80 | 1.10 | - | - | - | - | - |
1.3343 | 0.94 | 0.45 | 0.40 | 0.030 | 0.030 | 4.5 | 5.20 | 2.00 | - | - | - | - | 6.70 |
1.4034 | 0.50 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.040 | 0.015 | 14.5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
1.4404 | 0.03 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.045 | 0.015 | 18.5 | 2.50 | - | 13.0 | 0.11 | - | - | - |
1.4541 | 0.08 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.045 | 0.015 | 19.0 | - | - | 12.0 | - | 0.70 | - | - |
1.4713 | 0.12 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.040 | 0.015 | 8.0 | - | - | - | - | - | 1.00 | - |
1.4762 | 0.12 | 1.40 | 1.00 | 0.040 | 0.015 | 26.0 | - | - | - | - | - | 1.70 | - |
1.4828 | 0.20 | 2.50 | 2.00 | 0.045 | 0.015 | 21.0 | - | - | 13.0 | 0.11 | - | - | - |
1.4845 | 0.10 | 1.50 | 2.00 | 0.045 | 0.015 | 26.0 | - | - | 22.0 | 0.11 | - | - | - |
1.7225 | 0.45 | 0.40 | 0.90 | 0.035 | 0.035 | 1.2 | 0.30 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Material | Axis | Force for TS A (N) | Force for TS B (N) | Force for TS C (N) | Force for TS D (N) | Force for TS E (N) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.4541 | x | 0.37 | 1.39 | 1.28 | 2.40 | 1.83 |
z | 3.00 | 4.58 | 5.29 | 8.10 | 9.16 | |
1.7225 | x | 1.51 | 1.98 | 4.19 | 4.37 | 3.86 |
z | 2.54 | 2.31 | 4.71 | 5.88 | 5.43 | |
2.1176 | x | 0.44 | 0.77 | 2.13 | 1.61 | 0.89 |
z | 2.13 | 3.51 | 5.06 | 9.28 | 7.00 | |
3.2315 | x | 0.17 | 0.61 | 3.61 | 1.30 | 3.50 |
z | 2.26 | 3.92 | 5.99 | 0.14 | 9.37 |
Material | TNR Using TS A | TNR Using TS B | TNR Using TS C | TNR Using TS D | TNR Using TS E |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.4541 | 0.12 | 0.30 | 0.24 | 0.30 | 0.20 |
1.7225 | 0.59 | 0.86 | 0.89 | 0.74 | 0.71 |
2.1176 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.46 | 0.34 | 0.13 |
3.2315 | 0.08 | 0.15 | 0.60 | 0.14 | 0.37 |
Material | Force in the x-Axis (N) | Force in the z-Axis (N) |
---|---|---|
1.2379 | 2.10 | 4.51 |
1.3343 | 0.84 | 3.87 |
1.4541 | 1.39 | 4.58 |
1.4713 | 1.75 | 3.50 |
1.4845 | 1.47 | 5.78 |
1.7225 | 1.98 | 2.31 |
Material | C (%) | Cr (%) |
---|---|---|
1.2379 | 1.60 | 12.0 |
1.3343 | 0.94 | 4.5 |
1.4541 | 0.08 | 19.0 |
1.4713 | 0.12 | 8.0 |
1.4845 | 0.10 | 26.0 |
1.7225 | 0.45 | 1.2 |
Speed (mm/min) | Vibration in x-Axis (g) | Vibration in y-Axis (g) | Vibration in z-Axis (g) |
---|---|---|---|
20 | 0.35 | 0.24 | 0.18 |
40 | 0.48 | 0.35 | 0.22 |
60 | 0.61 | 0.44 | 0.25 |
80 | 0.78 | 0.59 | 0.33 |
100 | 1.12 | 1.43 | 1.01 |
Speed (mm/min) | Force in the x-Axis (N) | Force in the z-Axis (N) |
---|---|---|
20 | 2.75 | 2.84 |
40 | 3.60 | 4.50 |
60 | 5.08 | 5.53 |
80 | 7.09 | 8.14 |
100 | 16.80 | 16.12 |
Speed (mm/min) | 1.2379 (g) | 1.4034 (g) | 1.4404 (g) | 1.4541 (g) | 1.4762 (g) | 1.4828 (g) | 1.4845 (g) | 1.7225 (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
20 | 0.35 | 0.44 | 0.43 | 0.49 | 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.44 | 0.42 |
40 | 0.48 | 0.54 | 0.52 | 0.58 | 0.48 | 0.53 | 0.55 | 0.55 |
60 | 0.61 | 0.60 | 0.61 | 0.67 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.67 | 0.66 |
80 | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.74 | 0.77 | 0.68 | 0.88 | 0.72 | 0.72 |
100 | 1.12 | 1.25 | 0.82 | 0.90 | 0.78 | 1.01 | 0.66 | 0.51 |
Speed (mm/min) | 1.2379 (g) | 1.4034 (g) | 1.4404 (g) | 1.4541 (g) | 1.4762 (g) | 1.4828 (g) | 1.4845 (g) | 1.7225 (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
20 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.22 |
40 | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.24 |
60 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.27 |
80 | 0.33 | 0.42 | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.26 | 0.28 | 0.26 | 0.32 |
100 | 1.01 | 0.91 | 0.31 | 0.32 | 0.51 | 0.42 | 0.50 | 0.34 |
Material | C (%) | Cr (%) |
---|---|---|
1.2379 | 1.60 | 12.0 |
1.4034 | 0.50 | 14.5 |
1.4404 | 0.03 | 18.5 |
1.4541 | 0.08 | 19.0 |
1.4762 | 0.12 | 26.0 |
1.4828 | 0.20 | 21.0 |
1.4845 | 0.10 | 26.0 |
1.7225 | 0.45 | 1.2 |
Material | Vibration in x-Axis (g) | Vibration in y-Axis (g) | Vibration in z-Axis (g) |
---|---|---|---|
1.2379 | 0.61 | 0.44 | 0.25 |
1.3343 | 0.65 | 0.38 | 0.22 |
1.4034 | 0.60 | 0.41 | 0.25 |
1.4404 | 0.61 | 0.30 | 0.18 |
1.4541 | 0.67 | 0.40 | 0.20 |
1.4713 | 0.51 | 0.32 | 0.26 |
1.4762 | 0.56 | 0.34 | 0.22 |
1.4828 | 0.58 | 0.28 | 0.21 |
1.4845 | 0.67 | 0.54 | 0.20 |
1.7225 | 0.66 | 0.39 | 0.27 |
2.1176 | 0.90 | 0.47 | 0.28 |
3.2315 | 1.05 | 0.45 | 0.52 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gřunděl, J.; Hlaváč, L.M.; Pětroš, P.; Gembalová, L. Analysis of Several Physical Phenomena Measured on the Metallic Materials Cut by Abrasive Water Jets (AWJ). Materials 2022, 15, 7423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217423
Gřunděl J, Hlaváč LM, Pětroš P, Gembalová L. Analysis of Several Physical Phenomena Measured on the Metallic Materials Cut by Abrasive Water Jets (AWJ). Materials. 2022; 15(21):7423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217423
Chicago/Turabian StyleGřunděl, Jakub, Libor M. Hlaváč, Petr Pětroš, and Lucie Gembalová. 2022. "Analysis of Several Physical Phenomena Measured on the Metallic Materials Cut by Abrasive Water Jets (AWJ)" Materials 15, no. 21: 7423. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217423