Does Current Knowledge Give a Variety of Possibilities for the Stabilization/Solidification of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals?—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Samples Preparation and Curing Conditions
3. Characteristic of Binders, Amendments and Additives
3.1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
3.2. Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS)
3.3. Incinerated Sewage Sludge Ash (ISSA)
3.4. Fly Ash (FA) and Pulverized Fly Ash (PFA)
3.5. Magnesium Potassium Phosphate Cement (MPC)/(MKPC)
3.6. Red Gypsum (RG)
3.7. Phosphate Rock PR and Phosphoric Acid (PA)
3.8. Phosphogypsum (PG) and Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP)
3.9. Red Mud (RM)
3.10. Calcium Aluminate Cement (CAC)
3.11. Bentonite
3.12. Lime (CaO), Quicklime (QL), Lime Production Waste (LPW)
3.13. Reactive Magnesia (MgO)
3.14. Geopolymers and Geopolymeric Binder Made of NaOH-Activated Metakaolin (MK)
3.15. Natural and Synthetic Zeolite
3.16. SPC Binder
3.17. EnvirOceMTM
4. Effectiveness of Mixtures and Optimization Testing Methods
4.1. Unconfined Compression Strength
4.2. Leaching Behavior
4.3. Microstruture Investigation
4.4. Electrical Resistivity
4.5. Durability
4.5.1. Drying–Wetting Cycle
4.5.2. Sulfate and Acid Attack
4.5.3. Freeze—Thaw Impact
5. Conclusions
- The variety of proposed binders, additives and their mixtures and methods of activating the materials is very extensive in the literature, providing engineers with a wide range of options depending on the geochemical conditions of the treated site.
- Despite its many disadvantages, the most popular binder in the S/S process is Ordinary Portland Cement.
- Implementation of waste materials such as GGBS, FA, ISSA as amendments for part of the OPC for the stabilization/solidification process is becoming common practice, with many environmental and economic advantages.
- Replacing part of the cement with PFA or ISSA fly ash results in a significant decrease in the strength of the S/S product, but does not increase the leachability of the contaminants.
- The implementation of GGBS in place of part of the OPC results in an increase in strength, but significantly increases the leaching of contaminants when used in too large a quantity. The addition of an activator (e.g., MgO) significantly improves the ability of GGBS solidification.
- Considering the frequency of undertaking S/S process studies using red gypsum, red mud, calcium aluminate cement, bentonite, zeolites and superfine sulfate-resisting Portland cement, these materials should be considered niche products, effective for use only under specific conditions.
- In optimizing the mixture of binders and additives for the S/S process of heavy metal-contaminated soils, one of the main factors considered should remain the ecological aspect.
- The key studies assessing the effectiveness of S/S processes of contaminated soils are UCS and leachability studies. However, the scope of the latter varies widely and often does not take into account the actual conditions in the soil medium.
- The often-overlooked ageing tests, which take into account the effects of external factors on the mechanical and chemical stability of the resulting bonds when assessing durability, should be important in the evaluation of the S/S method.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Binder/Additive | SiO2 | Al2O3 | SO3 | CaO | TiO2 | Fe2O3 | MgO | K2O | P2O5 | Na2O | CO2 | MnO | F | LOI | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OPC | 18.99–27.4 | 4.41–11.5 | 2.25–4.52 | 46.6–65.72 | 0.17–0.51 | 2.31–4.03 | 1.02–3.71 | 0.24–1.31 | – | 0.08–0.23 | 0.17–0.48 | – | 0.05–0.06 | – | 0–6.19 | [31,37,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65] |
GGBS | 32.7–36.77 | 7.77–29.43 | 1.46–2.37 | 31.49–40 | 0.36–1.63 | 0.31–5.54 | 5.5–13.91 | 0.43–0.85 | – | −0.01–0.04 | 0–0.36 | – | 0.28–1.02 | – | −1.49–2.67 | [29,31,57,60,61,62,63,66] |
ISSA | 27.24–31.7 | 13.72–17.2 | 2.07–3.45 | 6.34–10.96 | 0.7–5.04 | 17.8–27.35 | 2.9–3.52 | 2.0–2.77 | – | 9.23–12.28 | 4.4–6.52 | – | – | – | nt–0.99 | [28,31,67] |
Class F FA | 53.97 | 31.15 | 0.727 | 4.01 | – | 4.16 | 1.01 | 2.04 | – | 0.89 | – | – | – | – | [59] | |
Class C FA | 34.2 | 19.3 | 2.2 | 25.8 | – | 5.64 | 5.07 | 0.52 | – | 2.4 | – | – | – | 0.11 | [68] | |
PR | 1.15–6.14 | 0.27–1.23 | – | 45.93–48.4 | – | nt–0.16 | nt–6.96 | – | – | 21.9 *–25.10 | – | nt–13 | – | 2.23–2.41 | nt–13.12 | [66,69] |
PG | 1.26–8.8 | nt–0.72 | 39.64–55.3 | 37.5–47.05 | – | – | nt–0.32 | nt–0.32 | – | nt–0.03 | nt–10.03 | – | – | – | – | [31,50] |
RM | 9.11–21.43 | 4.57–26.1 | nt-0.67 | nt–45.15 | nt–3.98 | 9.98–59.37 | nt–0.33 | nt–1.56 | – | nt–0.37 | nt–11.51 | – | 0.2–6 | – | nt–13.41 | [12,50,59,61] |
CAC | 7.38 | 52.9 | 0.31 | 34.1 | 2.23 | 1.83 | 0.37 | 0.45 | – | 0.19 | – | – | – | – | – | [70] |
QL | 1.2 | – | 0.012 | 95.4 | – | – | 0.85 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 0.55 | [68] | |
MgO | 0.9–1.1 | 0.12–0.41 | 0.05–0.28 | 0.5–1.39 | – | 0.03–0.7 | 95.8–89.5 | 0.01–3.57 | – | – | – | – | nt–0.02 | – | 0–2.76 | [29,37,54,55,57] |
MK | 49.55–50.30 | 35.22–47 | 0.05–0.59 | 0.18–0.2 | – | 0.52–1.05 | 0–0.36 | 0.19–0.28 | – | nt–0.28 | 0–0.01 | – | – | – | nt–4.23 | [61,65] |
Zeolite | 69.96 | 13.61 | – | 3.61 | 0.02 | 1.38 | 0.51 | 1.79 | – | 1.61 | – | 0.03 | – | 7.47 | [71] | |
CaO | – | – | – | 98.9 | – | – | 0.2 | – | – | nt | – | – | – | – | – | [72] |
No | Symbol * | S/W | Binder/Additive | WC | Heavy Metal | UCS | Leaching | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[%] | [%] | [%] | Type | [mg/kg] | [MPa] | mg/L | |||||
1 | PC | GGBS | ISSA | 20 | Pb | 1941 | TCLP | [31] | |||
S/PC | 50 | 50 | – | – | 35 | 6.26 | |||||
S/BC | 50 | 25 | 25 | – | 49 | 0.168 | |||||
Pb/ISSA = 1:2 | 50 | 18.10 | 18.10 | 13.8 | 45 | 0.055 | |||||
2 | SC | OPC | ISSA | 24–50% | Ba | 168,000 | Leachate pH | [32] | |||
C1 | 80 | 20 | – | – | 7.9 | 2.2 | |||||
H3 | 50 | – | 37.5 | 12.5 | 8.6 | 4.3 | |||||
3 | CAC/OPC/GGBS | TWEEN 80 | BENTONIT | 22 | Pb | 96.7 | AFNOR NF X31-211 | [164] | |||
M1 | 73 | 5/–/– | 0.025 | – | 0.65 | 0.101 | |||||
M2 | 68 | 10/–/– | 0.05 | – | 2.0 | 0.05 | |||||
M3 | 68 | 5/–/– | 0.05 | 5 | 0.45 | 0.197 | |||||
M4 | 63 | 10/–/– | 0.075 | 5 | 0.95 | 0.143 | |||||
M5 | 63 | 5/–/– | 0.075 | 10 | 0.15 | 0.290 | |||||
M6 | 58 | 10/–/– | 0.1 | 10 | 1.1 | 0.022 | |||||
M7 | 73 | –/3/2 | 0.025 | – | 0.4 | 0.290 | |||||
M8 | 68 | –/6/4 | 0.05 | – | 1 | 0.068 | |||||
M9 | 68 | –/3/2 | 0.05 | 5 | 0.22 | 0.300 | |||||
M10 | 63 | –/6/4 | 0.075 | 5 | 0.95 | 0.105 | |||||
M11 | 63 | –/3/2 | 0.075 | 10 | 0.25 | 0.190 | |||||
M12 | 58 | –/6/4 | 0.1 | 10 | 1 | 0.068 | |||||
4 | PC | MgO | CO2 | 7.5 | Pb | Leached Pb [mg/kg] | [37] | ||||
Pb + PC | 95 | 5 | – | – | 4000 | 2.0 | 100 | ||||
Pb + PC | 95 | 5 | – | – | 16,000 | 0.9 | 1100 | ||||
Pb + MgO + CO2 | 95 | – | 5 | used | 4000 | 1.9 | 8 | ||||
Pb + MgO + CO2 | 95 | – | 5 | used | 16,000 | 1.95 | 9.8 | ||||
5 | Ca(OH)2 | MgO | GGBS | 40 | Zn/Pb | TCLP | [54] | ||||
CGZn0.25 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 0.25 | 4.1 | 0.264 | ||||
CGZn0.5 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 0.5 | 1.9 | 0.220 | ||||
CGZn1 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 1 | 0.45 | 0.178 | ||||
CGPb0.25 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 0.25 | 5.9 | ND | ||||
CGPb0.5 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 0.5 | 7.9 | 0.072 | ||||
CGPb1 | 75 | 3.75 | – | 21.25 | 1 | 7.9 | 0.18 | ||||
MGZn0.25 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 0.25 | 4.9 | 0.091 | ||||
MGZn0.5 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 0.5 | 5.0 | 0.082 | ||||
MGZn1 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 1 | 3.2 | 0.076 | ||||
MGPb0.25 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 0.25 | 5.0 | 0.066 | ||||
MGPb0.5 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 0.5 | 5.9 | 0.062 | ||||
MGPb1 | 75 | – | 3.75 | 21.25 | 1 | 7.1 | 0.166 | ||||
6 | OPC | ISSA | 20 | Pb | 5000 | SBET [mg/kg] | [28] | ||||
H0 | 90 | 10 | – | 10 | 36 | ||||||
H0.2 | 90 | 8 | 2 | 4.6 | 35 | ||||||
H0.5 | 90 | 5 | 5 | 2.6 | 31.5 | ||||||
7 | 8 | soil | OPC | GGBS | 20 | As | 170.4 | TCLP | [41] | ||
O5 | 96 | 4 | – | 3.2 | 0.011 | ||||||
O4G1 | 96 | 3 | 1 | 3.7 | 0.015 | ||||||
O2.5G2.5 | 96 | 2 | 2 | 6.0 | 0.021 | ||||||
O10 | 92 | 8 | – | 7.5 | 0.06 | ||||||
O8G2 | 92 | 6 | 2 | 7.8 | 0.065 | ||||||
O5G5 | 92 | 4 | 4 | 9.5 | 0.012 | ||||||
8 | RM | PG | OPC | nt | Zn/Pb/Cd | 5000 | TCLP | [50] | |||
RPPC7.5 | 92.5 | 4.3 | 1.1 | 2.1 | 0.726 | 4.2/0.8/8 | |||||
RPPC10 | 90 | 5.7 | 1.4 | 2.9 | 1.1 | 0.8/0.3/0.9 | |||||
RPPC15 | 85 | 8.6 | 2.2 | 4.2 | 2.013 | 0.3/0.11/0.7 | |||||
PC10 | 90 | – | – | 10 | 3.3 | 0.4/0.9/0.8 | |||||
9 | CCR | PG | 16.5–17.6 | Ni/Zn | 6352/5352 | China HJ/T 299 | [33] | ||||
10% bin/dos | 90 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 0.46 | 0.01/0.12 | |||||
<10%bin-dos | >90 | <6 | <3 | <1 | <0.3 | >0.06/>0.7 | |||||
10 | KSil | FA | KOH | Zn | 15,900 | TCLP | [183] | ||||
KSil0.46KOH | 21 | 16.8 | 58.8 | 3.4 | 18.8 | 0.75 | 8.67 | ||||
OPC | FA | lime | 22.2 | 2.0 | <0.001 | ||||||
OPC lime | 35.8 | 7.1 | 50 | 7.1 | |||||||
11 | NCA | 13 | Pb | 10,000 | *** 7d | *** 7d | [30] | ||||
NCA ** 10% | 90 | 10 | – | – | 4.1 | 1.21 | |||||
NCA ** 20% | 80 | 20 | – | – | 6.32 | 0.318 | |||||
NCA ** 30% | 70 | 30 | – | – | 10.12 | 0.075 | |||||
NCA ** 40% | 60 | 40 | – | – | 11.16 | 0.027 | |||||
12 | SPC | – | – | Pb | 9710 | TCLP | [72] | ||||
92 | 8 | – | – | 22 | 0.352 | 1.8 | |||||
90 | 10 | – | – | 22 | 0.432 | 0.9 | |||||
13 | OPC | GGBS | – | – | As | 1985 | TCLP | [134] | |||
O4G1 | 95 | 4 | 1 | – | – | 1.1 | 4 | ||||
O2.5G2.5 | 95 | 2.5 | 2.5 | – | – | 1.05 | 5.3 | ||||
14 | OPC | CaO | MgO | 7.5 | Pb | 16,000 | SBLT | [192] | |||
Pb + OPC | 95 | 5 | – | – | 1.0 | 1000 | |||||
Pb + CaO | 95 | – | 5 | – | 0.18 | 8000 | |||||
Pb + MgO | 95 | – | – | 5 | 0.05 | 2 |
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Lal, A.; Fronczyk, J. Does Current Knowledge Give a Variety of Possibilities for the Stabilization/Solidification of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals?—A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 8491. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238491
Lal A, Fronczyk J. Does Current Knowledge Give a Variety of Possibilities for the Stabilization/Solidification of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals?—A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(23):8491. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238491
Chicago/Turabian StyleLal, Agnieszka, and Joanna Fronczyk. 2022. "Does Current Knowledge Give a Variety of Possibilities for the Stabilization/Solidification of Soil Contaminated with Heavy Metals?—A Review" Materials 15, no. 23: 8491. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238491