Hemp and Its Derivatives as a Universal Industrial Raw Material (with Particular Emphasis on the Polymer Industry)—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of Hemp Plants
2.1. Structure and Composition
2.1.1. Hemp Fibres
- Homopolymer that comes from natural sources;
- It has a zero-carbon balance for the environment due to its use in its synthesis, carbon dioxide;
- It is highly pure and non-toxic [18];
- It is characterized by good mechanical strength, which is why it is used as one of the basic natural construction materials [19].
- Primary-CH2-OH;
- Two secondary hydroxyl groups-OH.
- An intact fiber-containing crystalline and amorphous regions, with frayed ends at the periphery consisting of a paracrystalline region of cellulose, lignocellulosic or hemicellulose;
- Initial attack on regions with an amorphous structure;
- There will remain residual microcrystallites and decomposition of the remaining free short chain fragments;
- Attack on a crystalline region.
- Iα
- with the structure of a triclinic unit cell;
- Iβ
- monoclinic unit cell structure.
- A710 absorption intensity at the wavenumber of 710 cm−1;
- A750 absorption intensity at the wavenumber of 750 cm−1.
2.1.2. Extract
2.1.3. Waxes
2.2. Sectors of the Economy Using Cannabis
2.2.1. Agriculture and Energetic
2.2.2. Food Industry
2.2.3. Textile Industry
2.2.4. Pulp and Paper Industry
2.2.5. Construction
2.2.6. Automotive Industry
2.2.7. Cosmetics, Pharmaceutical and Medical Industries
2.2.8. Polymer Industry
2.2.9. Other Uses
3. Hemp and Derivatives in the Polymer Industry
3.1. Thermoplastics
3.2. Elastomers
3.3. Duroplasts
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AAPPH (ORAC) | Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity |
ABTS | 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) |
CBC | Cannabichromene |
CBD | Cannabidiol |
CBDA | Cannabinoid acid |
CBG | Cannabigerol |
CBN | Cannabinol |
C-NMR | Carbon-13 (C13) nuclear magnetic resonance |
DPPH | 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. |
FT-IR | Infrared Spectroscopy with Fourier Transformation |
NaOH | Sodium hydroxide |
THC | Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol |
THCV | Tetrahydrocannabivarin |
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Name of the Function Group | Wavenumber [cm−1] | Bibliographic |
---|---|---|
C-OH out-of-plane bending vibrations; C-C | 557 | [46] |
Stretch vibrations of the glucose ring; C–H stretching vibrations outside the plane of the aromatic ring | 895 | [22,23] |
-OH; -COO | 900–1200 | [47] |
CO-O-CO | 1000–1100 | [48] |
C-O stretching vibrations; deformation of the C-H aromatic plane | 1030–1058 | [49,50] |
The absorption band of hydroxyl compounds -OH | 1100 | [51,52] |
C-O stretching vibrations; asymmetric bridge C-O-C stretching vibrations | 1158 | [52,53] |
C-O; C=O; C-C-; COOH | 1100–1300 | [54] |
Acyl-oxygen CO-OR stretching vibrations in hemicelluloses; -CH3 | 1245 | [50] |
C-H deformation vibrations; -OH bending vibrations | 1325 | [51] |
C-H bending vibrations related to the structure of cellulose and hemicellulose | 1369 | [53,55] |
CH2 stretching vibrations related to the cellulose structure, vibrations of the bonds of the aromatic backbone | 1425–1426 | [52,53,56,57] |
CH deformation vibrations; asymmetric bending vibrations from -CH2 and -CH3 groups | 1426–1463 | [46] |
C=C stretching vibrations in aromatic structures | 1508 | [51] |
C=C stretching of the aromatic ring | 1550 | [45] |
C=C unsaturated bonds; | 1592 | [51] |
COO− (pectin) | 1650 | [45] |
-OH from absorbed water; C=C | 1653 | [50,51,56,58] |
C=O stretching vibrations in uncoupled ketones and free aldehydes | 1736; 1718 | [55,56,57,59,60] |
CH stretching vibrations in methyl and methylene groups | 2896 | [53,55,61] |
-OH stretching vibrations (hydrogen bonds) | 3331 | [53,62] |
Component | Value [%] |
---|---|
The content of the oily fraction in the entire mass of the hemp seed | 28.7 |
Saturated Fatty Acid | |
Palmitic acid | 6.96 |
Stearic acid | 2.74 |
Arachidic acid | 0.77 |
Total saturated fatty acid | 10.47 |
Unsaturated Fatty Acid | |
Oleic acid | 13.64 |
Linoleic acid | 56.35 |
Gamma-linoleic acid | 1.35 |
Alpha-linoleic acid | 17.30 |
Stearidonic acid | 0.50 |
Eicosenoic acid | 0.39 |
Total unsaturated fatty acid | 89.53 |
Component | Value [%] |
---|---|
Alkanes 27.02–28.85 | |
pentacosane | 1.92–2.17 |
heptacosane | 6.96–7.55 |
octacosane | 0.75–5.56 |
nonacosane | 9.92–10.51 |
triacontane | 0.44–0.58 |
dotriacontane | 0.49 |
tritriacontane | 1.58–2.06 |
pentatriacontane | 1.13–1.24 |
heptatriacontane | 1.18–1.23 |
Monoterpens | |
sabinene | 0.31–0.51 |
p-cymene | 3.32–5.15 |
Sesquiterpenes | |
β-cubebene | 0.31–0.40 |
(−)-trans-caryophyllene | 5.90–7.22 |
β-copaene | 0.32–0.40 |
α-humulene | 0.51–0.94 |
(E,E)-β-farnesene | 0.30–0.33 |
γ-gurjunene | 0.27 |
γ-curcumene | 0.59–0.70 |
valencene | 0.51–0.60 |
germacrene A | 0.39–0.44 |
α-7-epi-selinene | 0.42–0.54 |
α-cadinene | 0.20–0.33 |
α-bisabolene | 1.63–2.50 |
(E,E)-α-farnesene | 0.28 |
Terpenoids 22.92–23.70 | |
dehydro-1,8-cineole | 1.23–1.99 |
isoborneol | 0.38 |
fenchone | 0.26–0.44 |
cis-thujone | 0.27 |
endo-fenchol | 0.26–0.28 |
cis-nerolidol | 2.50–2.84 |
trans-nerolidol | 0.43 |
caryophyllene oxide | 0.49–0.89 |
humulene epoxide II | 0.31–0.37 |
10-epi-γ-eudesmol | 0.61–0.82 |
1,10-di-epi-cubenol | 0.29–0.36 |
γ-eudesmol | 0.29–0.47 |
α-muurolol | 0.25–0.35 |
β-eudesmol | 0.67–1.01 |
α-bisabolol | 0.18 |
(2Z,6Z)-farnesol | 0.49 |
Cannabinoids 41.67–46.37 | |
CBD | 4.20–9.67 |
CBC | 0.11–0.18 |
Δ8-THC | 0.12–0.13 |
Δ9-THC | 0.22–0.37 |
CBG | 0.07–0.22 |
CBN | 1.20–2.40 |
CBDA | 22.91–34.56 |
THCA | 5.78–5.89 |
Other 1.48–2.09 | |
heptanal | 0.22–0.61 |
2,4-hexadienal | 0.11 |
nonanal | 0.37 |
vanillin | 0.27 |
tridecanoic acid | 0.21–0.31 |
ethyl tetradecanoate | 0.42 |
hexadecenoic acid | 0.25–0.27 |
ethyl hexadecanoate | 0.22–0.31 |
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Tutek, K.; Masek, A. Hemp and Its Derivatives as a Universal Industrial Raw Material (with Particular Emphasis on the Polymer Industry)—A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072565
Tutek K, Masek A. Hemp and Its Derivatives as a Universal Industrial Raw Material (with Particular Emphasis on the Polymer Industry)—A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(7):2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072565
Chicago/Turabian StyleTutek, Karol, and Anna Masek. 2022. "Hemp and Its Derivatives as a Universal Industrial Raw Material (with Particular Emphasis on the Polymer Industry)—A Review" Materials 15, no. 7: 2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072565