Self-Healing Concrete as a Prospective Construction Material: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Strategies of SHC
3. Influential Factors of Self-Healing
3.1. Moisture Content
3.2. Crack Width
- -
- Dnssm is the non-steady-state migration coefficient [m2/s];
- -
- U is the absolute value of applied voltage [V];
- -
- T is the average value of the initial and final temperatures in the analyzed solution [K];
- -
- L is the thickness of the specimen [m], and
- -
- xd is the average value of the penetration depth [m]. Further, the following Table 1 summarizes the role of bacteria in crack healing.
Type of Bacteria | Type of Healing Agent | Embedded | Strength Recovery | Width of Crack, mm | Durability Effect | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subtilis | Urea, CaCl2 H2O | Diatomite lam dong | x | 1–1.8 | √ | [63] |
B. Pseudomycoides | Ureolytic activity | Directly with 100 mL cell | √ | 0.15–0.3 | √ | [64] |
Subtilis | Urea—2CaCl2 curing | Directly with 2.2 × 106 cells/mL | x | 0.2 | √ | [65] |
Sporosarcina pasteurii | Urea—CaCl2 curing | Directly with 107 cells/cm3 | √ | 0.28–0.34 | √ | [66] |
Sphaericus | Urea, yeast extract, Ca(NO3)2, 4H2O | Diatomaceous earth with 109 cell/mL | x | 0.15–0.17 | √ | [67] |
B. Megaterium | Urea yeast extract, beef extract | Directly with 2.2 × 106 cells/mL | √ | 0.3 | √ | [68] |
Sphaericus | Urea, yeast extract, Ca(NO3)2, 4H2O | Hydrogelencapsulated spore | x | 0.5 | √ | [69] |
B. Subtilis | Urea CaCO3 crystals, yeast extracts, NaCl | Steel bar, Hach dr 2400 portable | √ | 1.- | √ | [70] |
Sphaericus | Urea, Ca(NO3)2, 4H2O | Silica gel, polyurethane | √ | 0.35, 0.25 | √ | [71] |
Megaterium, licheniformi | Urea-broth culture | Direct with 105 cell/mL of mixing water | x | 0.3 | √ | [72] |
Sphaericus | Urea, calciumnitrate, yeast extract | Microcapsule | x | 0.97 | √ | [35] |
B. Sphaericus | Urea Ca2+ ion, CaCl2 usage | Trinocular stereomicroscope | √ | 0.4 | √ | [73] |
Pasteurii | Mixing water was replaced by urea–yeast extract medium | Direct with 2–6 × 107 cfu/mL | √ | - | x | [74] |
Sphaericus | Urea, Ca(NO3)2 | Glass tubes with PU foam | √ | 0.3 | - | [75] |
3.3. Time for Hydration
3.4. Pressure Loaded on Cracks
3.5. Water–Cement Ratio
4. Efficiency of Self-Healing
5. Mechanism of Self-Healing
5.1. Autogenic Self-Healing
5.2. Autonomic Bacteria-Based Self-Healing
5.3. Autonomic Capsule-Based Self-Healing
Encapsulation Techniques | Rate of Sub-Stitution (%) | Material of Encapsulated | Major Findings: (√) Improved Property, and (-) Unknown | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fracture Energy | Strengths and Elastic Modulus | Stiffness and Chloride Resistance | Condenses Index of Damage | Capillary Absorption and Permeability | Sorptivity Coefficient | Crack Width | Porosity and Surface Resistivity | Refs. | ||||
Poly styrene-divinylbenzene | 0–2 | Epoxy | √ | - | √ | - | √ | - | √ | - | [181] | |
Poly ureaf-ormaldehyde | 1–4 | Epoxy | - | √ | - | √ | - | - | √ | - | [182] | |
Urea formaldehyde | 0.25–2 | Ca(NO3)2 | √ | √ | - | - | - | - | √ | √ | [183,184,185] | |
0–9 | Epoxy | - | √ | √ | - | √ | √ | |||||
Urea formaldehyde | 0.5–5 | Sodium silicate | √ | √ | √ | - | [186] | |||||
Alginate | 10 | Ag+ | - | √ | √ | √ | √ | - | ||||
Poly-urea | 0.8 | Sodium silicate | - | - | - | - | √ | - | [41] | |||
Polyurethane | 2.5–5 | Sodium silicate | √ | - | - | - | √ | √ | - | [141] | ||
Melamine urea–formaldehyde | 1–4 | Epoxy | - | √ | √ | √ | - | - | √ | - | [187] | |
Polyvinyl alcohol | 10 | Calcium aluminate | - | - | √ | √ | - | - | √ | - | [35] | |
Silica | 5–10 | Epoxy | √ | - | - | - | √ | √ | √ | √ | [188] | |
Microcapsules | 1–5 | Bacterial spores | - | √ | - | √ | - | √ | - | [156] | ||
Poly-urea | 0.25 | Dicyclopenta-diene | - | √ | - | - | - | √ | - | [189] | ||
Content | Type of material | Øo (µm) | Length (mm) | Øi (µm) | Mixed | Thickness (µm) | ||||||
Capsule-based approach | Spherical | Cac6h10o6 | Expanded clay | 1000–4000 | – | – | √ | – | [119] | |||
Bacteria | 1000–4000 | – | – | √ | – | [119] | ||||||
Na2FPO3 | 4000 | – | – | √ | – | [112] | ||||||
Tung oil | Gelatin | 50 | – | – | √ | – | [190] | |||||
Epoxy | 50 | – | – | √ | – | [190] | ||||||
Acrylic resin | 125–297 | – | – | – | – | [13] | ||||||
Ca(OH)2 | 50 | – | – | √ | – | [190] | ||||||
Water | Paraffin | 900 | – | – | – | – | [179] | |||||
Retarder agent | Wax | 120 | – | – | √ | – | [48] | |||||
Epoxy | UF | 120 | – | – | √ | 4 | [191] | |||||
Na2SiO3 | PU | 40–800 | – | – | √ | – | [124] | |||||
Epoxy | UF | 20–70 | – | – | – | – | [13] | |||||
Na2SiO3 | Silica | 5000 | – | – | √ | – | [115] | |||||
Teb | Silica gel | 4.15 | – | – | √ | – | [34] | |||||
Cylindrical | Ca | Glass | 1000 | 100 | 800 | √ | 100 | [31] | ||||
Epoxy | 7000 | – | 4000 | – | – | [175] | ||||||
Pu | Ceramics | 3000–4000 | 15–50 | 2500–3500 | √ | 250 | [115] | |||||
Epoxy | Glass | 5000 | 250 | 3000 | √ | – | [175] | |||||
Epoxy | 6000 | 250 | 4000 | √ | – | [175] | ||||||
Ca | – | 75 | 800 | √ | – | [37] | ||||||
Bacteria | 2200–3350 | 20–80 | 2000–3000 | √ | 100 | [122] | ||||||
Ca | 2200–3350 | 20–80 | 2000–3000 | √ | 100 | [192] | ||||||
Ca | 4000 | 200 | 3200 | √ | 400 | [193] | ||||||
Poly-acrylate | 2200–3350 | 20–80 | 2000–3000 | √ | 100 | [192] | ||||||
Ca | – | 100 | 3000 | √ | – | [37] | ||||||
Ca | Glass | 4000 | 200 | 3200 | √ | 400 | [193] | |||||
Epoxy | 2200–3350 | 20–80 | 2000–3000 | √ | 100 | [192] | ||||||
Vascular-based approach | Tubular and cementitious capsules | Epoxy | Glass | – | – | 1500 | √ | – | [194] | |||
Foam | – | – | 1500 | √ | – | [194] | ||||||
Ca | 4000 | – | 3000 | √ | 500 | [37] | ||||||
Epoxy | Porous | 25,000–35,000 | – | – | √ | – | [195] | |||||
Ca | Glass | 4000 | – | 3200 | √ | 400 | [193] | |||||
Epoxy | 2000 | – | 800 | √ | 600 | [13] | ||||||
Alkali silica | 2000 | – | 800 | √ | 600 | [13] | ||||||
Epoxy | 6000 | – | 4800 | √ | 600 | [196] | ||||||
Ca | – | – | 1500 | √ | – | [194] | ||||||
Silicon | – | – | 1500 | √ | – | [194] |
6. Performance of SHC
Type of Microbial Agent | Influence on | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compressive Strength | Durability | Refs. | |||
Time (Day) | Influence | Water Absorption | Permeability | ||
Bacillus sphaericus | 28 | √ | – | √ | [207] |
7 | √ | ||||
7 | √ | √ | – | [206] | |
3 | √ | ||||
21 | √ | ||||
– | – | – | √ | [69] | |
90 | x | – | √ | [210] | |
28 | x | ||||
– | – | – | √ | [122] | |
– | – | √ | – | [67] | |
Bacillus sphaericus | 3 | √ | – | – | [211] |
7 | √ | ||||
28 | √ | √ | [212] | ||
B. Pseudomycoides | 7 | √ | – | – | |
14 | √ | – | – | [64] | |
28 | √ | – | – | ||
S. pasteurii | 7 | √ | – | – | [208] |
28 | √ | ||||
28 | √ | √ | – | ||
Bacillus cohnii | 7 | √ | – | – | [213] |
56 | √ | ||||
28 | √ | ||||
Bacillus licheniformis | 3 | √ | – | – | [214] |
7 | √ | - | |||
28 | √ | √ | |||
B. subtilis | 3 | √ | – | – | [70] |
7 | √ | – | – | ||
28 | √ | √ | √ | ||
Pasteurii bacteria | 28 | √ | √ | √ | [215] |
90 | √ | √ | √ | ||
Diaphorobacter nitroreducens | 28 | √ | – | – | [209] |
7 | √ | ||||
B. megaterium | – | √ | – | – | [68] |
28 | √ | – | – | ||
Bacillus pseudofirmus | 28 | √ | – | – | [119] |
7 | √ | ||||
3 | √ | ||||
B. sphaericus | 1 | √ | √ | – | [73] |
7 | √ | √ | – | ||
28 | √ | √ | – |
7. Evaluation of Self-Healing Efficiency
7.1. Rupture Behavior
7.2. Microcapsule and Macrocapsule Shell Robustness and Survivability
7.3. Recovery of Durability
8. Applications of SHC
9. A Preliminary View about the Costs of the SHC Technology
10. Limitations and Hotspot Research Topics for Future Investigations
- − Strategies to enhance bio self-healing and lower costs will bring about a shift in contractors’ acceptance of bio-concrete as a material of choice in the near future [271].
- − Future research should concentrate on the protection of bacteria in their natural habitats and the maintenance of a constant supply of nutrients.
- − The area of study should be extended to include the impact of healing on the return of these BSH materials’ original mechanical characteristics.
- − It is imperative that further study be done to see how these BSH systems perform in real environmental conditions, such as when the concrete is older, when it has many cracks, or when it is subjected to varied sustained loads.
- − There is still a shortage of large-scale meaningful commercial experience, where BSH strategies have not been employed in practical engineering projects till now.
- − A comprehensive evaluation of whether healed BSH concrete elements will achieve a similar or equivalent lifetime performance when compared to uncracked conventional concrete elements would require long-term durability tests to be conducted.
- − Further research is needed to determine how to cheaply scale up the various processes involved in the manufacturing of BSH materials.
- − Despite recent advances in the design of protocols for bio-based self-healing concrete, the available research is still hindered by a lack of numerical simulation, which would allow them to minimize experimental costs and time in the early stages of commercial application [273].
- − In addition, it is required to establish methodologies, such as life-cycle assessments, to evaluate the cradle-to-gate sustainability of various BSH options.
- − Further research is needed to expand the available bacterial isolates for case-specific bespoke solutions.
- − In order to improve our understanding of the precise determinants underpinning an ideal bacterium, it could be better to use genetically modified microorganisms to aid in the focused selection of the most appropriate species.
- − Despite this, SHC’s application to the concrete industry is still a while away.
- − The feasibility of applying a healing agent during the mixing process and the persistence of bacteria in cured concrete require more investigation [44].
- − It is critical that future research be directed toward the creation of capsules that are capable of surviving the concrete mixing and manufacturing processes without affecting the mechanical qualities of the resulting concrete.
11. Future Prospects
- − Autogenous healing is still limited to small cracks, and its reliability still is lower because it is dependent on the matrix composition at the time of crack development, which determines the possible reaction mechanisms.
- − It should also consider the chance of a fracture reaching a capsule, the release efficiency, and the healable crack volume.
- − Because tubular capsules must be manually inserted, this method is only suitable to precast concrete elements.
12. The Role and Potential of Nanotechnologies as Innovative Solutions for Future Building Applications
- -
- The manufacturing of low-cost corrosion-free steel.
- -
- The use of nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and nanofibers to boost the strength and durability of cement materials on the SHC capability of high-performance concrete, as well as to reduce pollution [280].
- -
- The creation of coatings and thin films with self-cleaning and self-coloring properties to reduce energy usage.
- -
- The production of thermal insulating materials with ten times the performance of current market choices.
- -
- The creation of nanosensors and nanomaterials with sensing and SHC capabilities.
- -
- Further study in the realm of nanotoxicity is also required; nevertheless, significant caution should be utilized while employing nanoparticles [277].
13. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
SHC | Self-healing concrete |
ASH | Autogenic self-healing |
BSH | Bacteria-based self-healing |
Ca(OH)2 | Carbonation of calcium hydroxide |
C-S-H | Calcium silicate hydrates |
ECC | Engineered cementitious composite |
HPC | High-performance concrete |
PET | Polyethylene terephthalate |
SAP | Superabsorbent polymer |
SCM | Supplementary cementitious material |
UHPC | Ultra-high-performance concrete |
UHPFRC | Ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete |
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Method | Possibilities | Refs. | |
---|---|---|---|
Visualization and determination | X-ray radiography | Imagining release encapsulated agent from embedded capsule | [13] |
Scanning electron microscopy | Imagining crystal deposition | [16,47,67,111] | |
Environmental scanning electron microscopy | Imagining breakage of partially embedded capsule | [16] | |
Thin section analysis | Imagining crystal deposition inside crack | [95,112] | |
Optical microscopy and image analysis | Imagining crystal deposition and determination of healing rate | [111,113,114] | |
X-ray tomography | Imagining release encapsulated agent from embedded capsule in 3D | [115] | |
Release of encapsulated agent | [13,115] | ||
Environmental scanning electron microscopy | Imagining breakage of partially embedded capsule | [16] | |
X-ray diffraction analysis | Finding of crystalline materials | [116] | |
Determination of crystalline materials | [117] | ||
Infrared analysis | Finding of precipitated products | [118,119] | |
Raman spectroscopy | Determination chemical composition | [111] | |
Correlation of digital image | Crack tends to close after treatment | [72] | |
Micromorphology | Crystals starts to deposit in crack | [95,112] | |
Image analysis/optical microscopy | Determination of healing rate | [113,114] | |
Regain tightness | Air permeability | Air flow via crack | [34] |
Water permeability | Water flow via crack | [90,115,120,121,122] | |
Capillary water uptake | Capillary water uptake by crack | [112,123] | |
Corrosion test | Resistance against corrosion | [67,124] | |
Corrosion resistance | [124] | ||
Neutron radiography | Visualize capillary water uptake | [53] | |
Frost salt scaling | Resistance against frost salt scaling | [125] | |
Ultrasonic transmission measurements | Continuity of material | [117] | |
Osmotic pressure | Resistance against ion ingress | [117] | |
Chloride diffusion | Resistance against chloride ingress | [117] | |
Pressure water/air permeability | Water flows via cracks healed | [115,122,126,127] | |
Salt scaling | Salt scaling resistance | [125] | |
Ultrasonic transmission technique | Continuation of material | [117] | |
Osmotic pressure | Ion ingression resistance | [128] | |
Neutron radiography | Finding of water uptake | [53,129] | |
Diffusion of chloride | Chloride ingression resistance | [130,131] | |
Regain mechanical properties | Water uptake through capillary action | Water uptake | [112,123] |
4-point bending test | Reopening of old cracks versus creation of new cracks | [115] | |
3-point bending test | [2,37,95,132] | ||
Regain of stiffness and strength | [2,37,95,115] | ||
Resonance frequency analysis | Regain of stiffness | [20,51,105,120] | |
Compression test and tensile test | Regain of strength, energy, and stiffness | [34,51,111,113] | |
Regain of stiffness and strength | [34,51,133] | ||
Impact loading on slab | [128] | ||
Column/frame deformation | |||
Frequency analysis | Capsule containing healing agent breaks | [20,105,116,120] |
Mineral Additives | Ratio of Mineral Additives | Curing Condition | Type of Damage | Performance of Healing Crack Width in Time | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crystalline additive (CA), alcium sulfoa- luminate (CSA), and FA | 1.5% CA and OPC with 10% CSA | Water | Sp. Tensile test | -100–400 μm in 56 d Calcite | [25] |
MgO | 5% as cement replacement | Water | Applied load corresponding to 80% of the ultimate compressive strength for 7 days | -FTIR spectra analysis confirmed sharp bands around 1400 and 1500 cm−1 due to the stretching of C–O bonds, which corresponded to (CaCO3 and MgCO3) phases at 28 days - Cracks were sealed within 14 days | [148] |
CSA | 4.4%, 15.2% of cement | Flow water | Tension force | 100 µm less flow | [149] |
Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) | 0.5, 1% | 90% RH and at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C | Four-point bending test | -Cracks smaller than 150 µm almost completely healed -Cracks larger than 200 µm showed reduced visual closure | [150] |
CSA, Mont. | Up to 10% (concrete) | Water | 3PB, mechanical | -160–220 µm in 33 d Calcite, CASH | [24] |
FA | 15–20% with cement | Water | Shrinkage micro-cracks | -Meso-macro pores at 91, 182, and 364 d | [131] |
FA, CA, SF | OPC + 10%SF, OPC + 1%CA OPC + 30%FA | Water | Splitting tensile test | -50 μm in 12 d, larger cracks heal proficiently with SF | [29] |
Combination of SF and MgO | (5%SF + 5%MgO) As cement replacement | Water | Applied load corresponding to 80% of the ultimate compressive strength for 7 days | FTIR spectra analysis confirmed sharp bands around 980 cm−1 for Si–O bonds, which indicate C–S–H - Cracks were sealed within 14 days | [148] |
Bentonite silica, Ca, CEA, | 8% + up to 14% | Water, air, wet–dry, freeze–thaw | Compression, sp. Tensile | 220 μm in 14 days Silica, bent, Ca | [26] |
Slag, FA | 30–40% of mortar | Water | Shrinkage | -Upgrade in strength | [151] |
BFS | 50% BFS + OPC | Water | Mechanical | It was 3 times quicker for cement | [29] |
FA | 5–155 of sand | Water | Freeze–thaw | -Increased damage by 90% in 1 day | [152] |
Slag, FA, L | 85% slag and 30, 50% FA; 50, 75 | Water | 3PB, mechanical | 200 μm in 42 d | [27] |
Bentonite, L, slag | 2% PVA by vol. Dia = 40 μm Length = 8 mm | Water, wet–dry cycle, air | 4 PB | -Naloclay advances the reloading bending capacity | [153] |
Blast-furnace slag | 66% as cement replacement | Saturated Ca(OH)2 solution | Micro-cracks | In 240 h of healing time, cracks of 10 and 30μm in width were healed by around 60% and 30%, respectively. | [142] |
Bentonite | Nanoclay as internal water reservoir | Water | Mechanical | -Enhanced hydration for self-healing | [154] |
MgO | 4–12% of cement | Water | Drying shrinkage, 3PB | <500 μm in 28 d -Durability improved | [23,155] |
CSA | PVA, up to 10% of mortar, 1:3 | Water | 3PB | 100–200 μm-14 d,<100 μm-11 d, >200 μm-16 d | [156] |
Clay lwas | Sodium mono fluorophosphate (Na-MFP) and PC-coated (Mortar) | Water | Mechanical | -Absorption decrease phosphorous, sodium, and fluoride, CH | [112] |
CSA | Aggregates | -Water -Curing room (95–98% RH and 20 ± 2 °C) | Several CSA were broken into halves and pieced together | -The effective healing area reaches up to 1/3 of the fracture area after 3 months | [157] |
Slag | 66% of cement | Ca(OH)2 solution | Sliced, mechanical | 60% of 10 μm in 10 days -Hydrogenate, C-S-H, ettringite | [142] |
CA: microsilica + sand + cement | 1–2% of cement | Water, open air | 4PB | 60% cracks sealed at ambient temperature | [158] |
FA, quicklime | 3% of cement | Water | Mechanical | Improved SiO2 solubility | [28] |
Type of Bacteria | Formation of Self-Healing | Main Findings | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Bacillus cohnii | C6H10CaO6 | - Bacteria remain active for a half-year. | [121] |
- Seals larger cracks. | |||
Bacillus subtilis | C6H10CaO6 | - Improves healing action. | [76] |
Bacillus | Alteration of origin of Ca to carbonate | - Bacteria continue to be active for 120 days. | [76] |
- Origin of Ca affects healing percentage. | |||
Bacillus sphaericus | Ureolytic precipitation of Ca(NO3)2 | - Increases strength. | [122] |
- Increases self-healing phenomenon. | |||
- Decreases permeability. | |||
- Improves healing ratio. | [67] | ||
- Condenses in permeability. | [35] | ||
- Diminishes water absorption. | |||
- Lessens permeability. | [69] | ||
B. pseudomycoides | Ureolytic activity | - Check deeper part of the crack. | [64] |
- Heals the crack width. | |||
- Enhances the concrete matrices. | |||
Bacillus subtilis | Urea–2 CaCl2 curing | - Increases the compressive strength. | [65] |
- Increases the porosity. | |||
- Enhances the permeability and water absorption. | |||
Bacillus sphaericus | Ureolytic precipitation of Ca(NO3)2, 4H2O | - Reduces the water absorption. | [67] |
- Reduces the crack width. | |||
- Increases strength. | |||
Bacillus megaterium | Urea yeast extract, CaCO3 | - Heals the crack width. | [68] |
- Increases strength. | |||
- Decreases permeability. | |||
Bacillus sphaericus | Ureolytic precipitation of Ca(NO3)2, 4H2O | - Improves self-healing efficiency. | [69] |
- Fills larger cracks. | |||
- Reduces permeability. | |||
Bacillus subtilis | Urea caco3 crystals, yeast extracts, NaCl | - Achieves higher strength recovery. | [70] |
- Increases strength. | |||
- Heals the crack width. | |||
Bacillus sphaericus | Urea, calcium nitrate, urea (CO(NH2)2) | - Reduces permeability. | [35] |
- Optimizes the dosage of the microcapsules. | |||
- Improves healing ratio. | |||
Lysinibacillus sphaericus | Urea Ca2+ ion, CaCl2 usage | - Increases the mortar properties. | [73] |
- Reduces porosity and permeability. | |||
- Increases strength. |
Agent | Expansion | Components Number | Time of Curing | Curing Method | Strength (MPa) | Viscosity (mPas) | Refs. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | 1 | Less than 2 | ||||||
Silicone | √ | – | √ | – | – | Air | – | – | [194] |
Epoxy | √ | – | √ | – | – | Moisture, air | 25 | – | [249] |
√ | – | √ | – | 60 °C, <100 min | Moisture, air, heat | – | – | [250] | |
Tung oil | √ | – | √ | – | – | Air | – | – | [159] |
Epoxy | √ | – | – | √ | 30 min | Contact component | 5.1 | 150 | [192] |
PU and bacterial solution | – | √ | – | √ | – | – | 600 | [122] | |
Epoxy | √ | – | – | √ | ±1 h | – | – | [159] | |
√ | – | – | √ | 40 min | 45 | 360 | [192] | ||
√ | – | – | √ | 30 min | 4.2 | 80 | [192] | ||
Na2SiO3 solution | √ | – | √ | – | – | Ca(OH)2 matrix | – | – | [251] |
Epoxy | √ | – | √ | – | – | Moist, air | 22 | 250–500 | [175] |
Alkali silica | √ | – | √ | – | – | Air | – | – | [13] |
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) | √ | – | – | √ | – | Contact component | – | ±1 | [34] |
√ | – | – | √ | 30 min | Contact component | 50–75 | ±1 | ||
√ | – | √ | – | – | Heat | – | – | [252] | |
√ | – | – | √ | 1 h | 50 | 34 | [253] | ||
PU | - | √ | √ | – | 40–180 min | Moist | – | 7200 | [192] |
√ | – | √ | 50–300 s | Contact component | – | 600 | [192] | ||
√ | – | √ | – | 100 days | Water and O2 | – | – | [16] | |
Polyacrylate | √ | – | – | √ | 40 s | Contact component | – | 7 | [192] |
Ca(OH)2 solution | √ | – | √ | – | – | CO2 in air | – | – | [159] |
√ | – | √ | – | – | Matrix | – | – | [254] | |
Bacterial solution | √ | – | – | √ | – | Water | – | – | [67] |
Epoxy | √ | – | – | √ | – | Contact component | – | – | [13] |
√ | – | – | √ | – | Contact component | 17.6 | 200 | [191] | |
Foam | - | √ | √ | – | – | – | – | – | [194] |
Na2FPO3 solution | √ | – | √ | – | 28 days | Carbonation products | – | – | [112] |
Method | Scale | Type of Technology | Action of Healing | Requirements of Construction | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Micro or meso | Nutrient sources and bacterial spores are spread in a random pattern throughout the cementitious matrix. | In favorable conditions, spores are exposed to water and a nutrient source (i.e., on crack surface). Bacteria deposit CaCO3 on the surface of the crack. | As a normal component of the concrete mix, nutrients and bacterial spores are included. | [55,163] |
Encapsulation | Micro | Direct mixing with water | Autogenous healing happens due the precipitation of calcium carbonate CaCO3 from decomposed urea into carbonate ions and calcium carbonate by bacteria in the presence of Ca2+present in atmosphere/hydrogel. | Melamine microcapsules/hydrogel containing cells of Bacillus sphaericus spores with yeast extract, urea, and Ca (NO3)2⋅4H2O. | [35,69] |
Flow networks | All altogether | In a cementitious matrix, a small diameter hollow network is produced. Tubes containing a healing agent. | Concrete cracks will rupture the flow network, allowing the healing agent to enter the crack plane. The network supports recurrent damage/healing actions. | Prior to casting, the network is embedded in concrete, and the network forming tubes are removed 1 day later. | [9,154,257] |
Nanomaterial additives | Nano | Direct mix | Refine micro-cracks by filling effect and pozzolanic reaction with Ca(OH)2. | Good distribution to prevent agglomeration. | [153,258] |
Shape memory polymers | Meso or macro | PET strands in tendon form are anchored in the matrix. Post-tensioning strands are analogous in nature. An electric current is used to activate heat. PET shrinking results in a post-tensioning effect. | Cracks are repaired to the point where either natural autogenic healing or one of the numerous nano or micro scale healing techniques can take place. | Concrete placed into molds in a comparable way to a post-tensioning mechanism. | [72,116] |
Coating method | Based on coating type | The coatings respond to changes in the pH of the solution or to the change in temperature and air, achieving an immediate response. | Chemical reaction/polymerization to form a tough, corrosion-resistant film | Based on coating type | [259,260,261] |
Microcapsules | Nano or micro | Microcapsules are dispersed at random throughout the cementitious matrix. | A break propagates across the microcapsule, causing it to rupture. Healing agent is released into the crack plane. | Microcapsules will be included as a normal element of the mix of concrete. | [34,35,124,141,185] |
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Amran, M.; Onaizi, A.M.; Fediuk, R.; Vatin, N.I.; Muhammad Rashid, R.S.; Abdelgader, H.; Ozbakkaloglu, T. Self-Healing Concrete as a Prospective Construction Material: A Review. Materials 2022, 15, 3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093214
Amran M, Onaizi AM, Fediuk R, Vatin NI, Muhammad Rashid RS, Abdelgader H, Ozbakkaloglu T. Self-Healing Concrete as a Prospective Construction Material: A Review. Materials. 2022; 15(9):3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093214
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmran, Mugahed, Ali M. Onaizi, Roman Fediuk, Nikolai Ivanovicn Vatin, Raizal Saifulnaz Muhammad Rashid, Hakim Abdelgader, and Togay Ozbakkaloglu. 2022. "Self-Healing Concrete as a Prospective Construction Material: A Review" Materials 15, no. 9: 3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093214