In-Depth Study on the Application of a Graphene Platelet-reinforced Composite to Wind Turbine Blades
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Wind Turbine Blade Reinforced with GPLs
2.1. Effective Material Properties of GPLRCs
2.2. Finite Element Model of GPL-Reinforced Wind Blade
2.3. Loading and Boundary Conditions
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Validation of the FEA Model
3.2. Mechanical Behaviors of GPL-Reinforced Wind Turbine Blade
3.2.1. Static Bending
3.2.2. Free Vibration
3.3. Cost–Benefit Analysis
4. Conclusions
- Flapwise deflection, edgewise deflection, and von Mises stress exhibited similar performance to the wind turbine blade based on conventional fiberglass composites when was 2.7%, whereas torsional deformation exhibited the most similar performance when was 2.0%;
- When the GPL reinforcement position (leading part (LP), trailing part (TP), spar cap, and shear web) in the wind turbine blade was different, fiberglass showed the largest flapwise deflection, succeeded by the TP, shear web, LP, and spar cap. The spar cap exhibited the largest edgewise deflection, succeeded by the fiberglass, shear web, LP, and TP. In addition, fiberglass had the largest torsional deformation, succeeded by the spar cap, TP, shear web, and LP;
- When the resonance of the analysis model was evaluated using a Campbell diagram, the possibility of resonance was lower for the blade with the GPLRC than that with fiberglass;
- When natural frequency characteristics were analyzed according to the GPL reinforcement position in the wind turbine blade, the same mode shape as the wind turbine blade with conventional fiberglass composites was observed in all cases. This study confirmed that the natural frequencies of the blades with the GPLRC were always higher than those with fiberglass;
- Similar mechanical performance was achieved by increasing the volume fraction of GPLs while significantly reducing the weight of the blade even if the thickness of the GPLRC in the wind turbine blade was reduced;
- When changes in the GPL content, blade weight, and cost due to the GPLRC thickness reduction were analyzed, the GPL content increased and the blade weight decreased as the thickness of the GPLRC decreased. The material cost remained similar to the blade based on conventional fiberglass composites.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Geometry and Material Properties of Wind Turbine Blades
Blade Span (m) | Airfoil Type | Chord Length LC (m) | Twist Angle (°) | Aero. Center x/LC |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | Circular | 3.39 | 13.31 | 0.50 |
1.3667 | Circular | 3.39 | 13.31 | 0.50 |
10.25 | DU40_A17 | 4.56 | 13.31 | 0.28 |
14.35 | DU35_A17 | 4.65 | 11.48 | 0.28 |
22.55 | DU30_A17 | 4.25 | 9.01 | 0.28 |
26.65 | DU25_A17 | 4.01 | 7.80 | 0.28 |
30.75 | DU25_A17 | 3.75 | 6.54 | 0.28 |
34.85 | DU21_A17 | 3.50 | 5.36 | 0.28 |
38.95 | DU21_A17 | 3.26 | 4.19 | 0.28 |
43.05 | NA64_17 | 3.01 | 3.13 | 0.28 |
47.15 | NA64_17 | 2.76 | 2.32 | 0.28 |
51.25 | NA64_17 | 2.52 | 1.53 | 0.28 |
54.6667 | NA64_17 | 2.31 | 0.86 | 0.28 |
57.4 | NA64_17 | 2.09 | 0.37 | 0.28 |
60.1333 | NA64_17 | 1.42 | 0.11 | 0.28 |
61.5 | NA64_17 | 1.09 | 0.00 | 0.28 |
Material | (GPa) | (GPa) | (GPa) | (kg/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gelcoat | 3.44 | - | 1.38 | 0.3 | 1235 |
E-LT-5500 (UD) | 41.8 | 14.0 | 2.63 | 0.28 | 1920 |
Saertex (DB) | 13.6 | 13.3 | 11.8 | 0.49 | 1780 |
SNL (Triax) | 27.7 | 13.65 | 7.2 | 0.39 | 1850 |
Foam | 0.256 | 0.256 | 0.022 | 0.3 | 200 |
Carbon (UD) | 114.5 | 8.39 | 5.99 | 0.27 | 1220 |
Stack ID | Stack Name | Material |
---|---|---|
1 | Gelcoat | Gelcoat |
2 | Triax Skins | SNL (Triax) |
3 | Triax Root | SNL (Triax) |
4 | UD Carbon | Carbon (UD) |
5 | UD Glass TE | E-LT-5500 (UD) |
6 | TE Foam | Foam |
7 | LE Foam | Foam |
8 | Shear web facesheet | Saertex (DB) |
9 | Shear web core | Foam |
Blade Span (m) | LE | LE Panel | Spar Cap | TE | TE Reinforcement | TE Panel | Shear Web |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | - |
1.3667 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 8-9-8 |
1.5 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-7-2 | 1-2-3-4-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-5-6-2 | 1-2-3-6-2 | 8-9-8 |
6.8333 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-7-2 | 1-2-3-4-2 | 1-2-3-2 | 1-2-3-5-6-2 | 1-2-3-6-2 | 8-9-8 |
9 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-7-2 | 1-2-4-2 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-5-6-2 | 1-2-6-2 | 8-9-8 |
43.05 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-7-2 | 1-2-4-2 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-5-6-2 | 1-2-6-2 | 8-9-8 |
45 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-7-2 | 1-2-4-2 | 1-2-2 | - | 1-2-6-2 | 8-9-8 |
61.5 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-2 | 1-2-2 | - | 1-2-2 | 8-9-8 |
Appendix B. Aerodynamic Load Calculation Using BEMT
References
- Yee, K.; Ghayesh, M.H. A review on the mechanics of graphene nanoplatelets reinforced structures. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 2023, 186, 103831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Su, X.; Wang, R.; Li, X.; Araby, S.; Kuan, H.C.; Naeem, M.; Ma, J. A comparative study of polymer nanocomposites containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets. Nano Mater. Sci. 2022, 4, 185–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rafiee, M.A.; Rafiee, J.; Wang, Z.; Song, H.; Yu, Z.Z.; Koratkar, N. Enhanced mechanical properties of nanocomposites at low graphene content. ACS Nano. 2009, 3, 3884–3890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rafiee, M.A.; Rafiee, J.; Yu, Z.Z.; Koratkar, N. Buckling resistant graphene nanocomposites. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009, 95, 223103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parashar, A.; Mertiny, P. Representative volume element to estimate buckling behavior of graphene/polymer nanocomposite. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2012, 7, 515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feng, C.; Kitipornchai, S.; Yang, J. Nonlinear bending of polymer nanocomposite beams reinforced with non-uniformly distributed graphene platelets (GPLs). Compos. Part B Eng. 2017, 110, 132–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gholami, R.; Ansari, R. Large deflection geometrically nonlinear analysis of functionally graded multilayer graphene platelet-reinforced polymer composite rectangular plates. Compos. Struct. 2017, 180, 760–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, G.; Araby, S.; Gibson, C.T.; Meng, Q.; Zhu, S.; Ma, J. Graphene platelets and their polymer composites: Fabrication, structure, properties, and applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, 28, 1706705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, S.; Zhao, Z.; Yang, Z.; Ke, L.; Kitipornchai, S.; Yang, J. Functionally graded graphene reinforced composite structures: A review. Eng. Struct. 2020, 210, 110339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohan, V.B.; Lau, K.; Hui, D.; Bhattacharyya, D. Graphene-based materials and their composites: A review on production, applications and product limitations. Compos. Part B Eng. 2018, 142, 200–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNFCCC. Adoption of the Paris Agreement. FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1; United Nations: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- IMO. 2023 IMO Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emissions from Ships; Annex 15, Resolution MEPC.377(80); International Maritime Organization: London, UK, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Mengal, A.N.; Karuppanan, S.; Wahab, A.A. Basalt carbon hybrid composite for wind turbine rotor blades: A short review. Adv. Mat. Res. 2014, 970, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chikhradze, N.M. Hybrid fiber and nanopowder reinforced composites for wind turbine blades. J. Mat. Res. Technol. 2015, 4, 60–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muhammed, K.A.; Kannan, C.R.; Stalin, B. Performance analysis of wind turbine blade materials using nanocomposites. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 33, 4353–4361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holmes, J.W.; Brøndsted, P.; Sørensen, B.F.; Jiang, Z.; Sun, Z.; Chen, X. Development of a bamboo-based composite as a sustainable green material for wind turbine blades. Wind. Eng. 2009, 33, 197–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shen-xue, J.; Qi-sheng, Z.; Shu-hai, J. On Structure, production, and market of bamboo-based panels in China. J. Forestry Res. 2002, 13, 151–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ennis, B.L.; Kelley, C.L.; Naughton, B.T.; Norris, R.E.; Das, S.; Lee, D.; Miller, D.A. Optimized Carbon Fiber Composites in Wind Turbine Blade Design; Sandia Report, SAND2019-14173; Sandia National Laboratories: Livermore, CA, USA, 2019.
- Paquette, J.; van Dam, J.; Hughes, S. Structural testing of 9m carbon fiber wind turbine research blades. In Proceedings of the AIAA 2007-816 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, Nevada, 8–11 January 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Boncel, S.; Kolanowska, A.; Kuziel, A.W.; Krzyżewska, I. Carbon nanotube wind turbine blades: How far are we today fromlaboratory tests to industrial implementation. ACS Appl. Nano. Mater. 2018, 1, 6542–6555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buyuknalcaci, F.N.; Polat, Y.; Negawo, T.A.; Döner, E.; Alam, M.S.; Hamouda, T.; Kilic, A. 24—Carbon nanotube-based nanocomposites for wind turbine applications. In Polymer-Based Nanocomposites for Energy and Environmental Applications; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2018; pp. 635–661. [Google Scholar]
- Saboori, A.; Pavese, M.; Badini, C.; Fino, P. Effect of sample preparation on the microstructural evaluation of Al–GNPs nanocomposites. Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. 2017, 6, 619–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shamsaei, E.; de Souza, F.B.; Yao, X.; Benhelal, E.; Akbari, A.; Duan, W. Graphene-based nanosheets for stronger and more durable concrete: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 183, 642–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scidà, A.; Haque, S.; Treossi, E.; Robinson, A.; Smerzi, S.; Ravesi, S.; Borini, S.; Palermo, V. Application of graphene-based flexible antennas in consumer electronic devices. Mater. Today. 2018, 21, 223–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Resor, B.R. Definition of a 5MW/61.5m Wind Turbine Blade Reference Model; Sandia Report, SAND2013-2569; Sandia National Laboratories: Livermore, CA, USA, 2013.
- Wu, H.; Kitipornchai, S.; Yang, J. Thermal buckling and postbuckling of functionally graded grapheme nanocomposite plates. Mater. Des. 2017, 132, 430–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Z.; Liu, A.; Yang, J.; Lai, S.-K.; Lv, J.; Fu, J. Analytical Prediction for Nonlinear Buckling of Elastically Supported FG-GPLRC Arches under a Central Point Load. Materials 2021, 14, 2026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Habibi, M.; Mohammadi, A.; Safarpour, H.; Ghadiri, M. Effect of porosity on buckling and vibrational characteristics of the imperfect GPLRC composite nanoshell. Mech. Based Des. Struc. 2019, 49, 811–840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Javani, M.; Kiani, Y.; Eslami, M.R. Geometrically nonlinear free vibration of FG-GPLRC circular plate on the nonlinear elastic foundation. Compos. Struct. 2021, 261, 113515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cho, J.R. Free vibration analysis of functionally graded porous cylindrical panels reinforced with graphene platelets. Nanomater. 2023, 13, 1441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, C.; Chen, H.P.; Huang, T.L. Fatigue damage assessment of wind turbine composite blades using corrected blade element momentum theory. Measurement 2018, 129, 102–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Algolfat, A.; Wang, W.A. Albarbar, Dynamic response analysis of a 5 MW NREL wind turbine blade under flap-wise and edge-wise vibrations. J. Dyna. Monitor. Diagn. 2022, 1, 208–222. [Google Scholar]
- Ullah, H.; Ullah, B.; Silberschmidt, V.V. Structural integrity analysis and damage assessment of a long composite wind turbine blade under extreme loading. Compos. Struct. 2020, 246, 112426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sang, S.; Wen, H.; Cao, A.X.; Du, X.R.; Zhu, X.; Shi, Q.; Qiu, C.H. Dynamic modification method for BEM of wind turbine considering the joint action of installation angle and structural pendulum motion. Ocean Eng. 2020, 215, 107528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Z.J.; Stol, K.A.; Mace, B.R. Wind turbine blade optimisation with individual pitch and trailingedge flap control. Renew. Energy 2017, 103, 750–765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shakya, P.; Sunny, M.R.; Maiti, D.K. A parametric study of flutter behavior of a composite wind turbine blade with bend-twist coupling. Compos. Struct. 2019, 207, 764–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, E.L.; Hsu, M.C. Isogeometric analysis of ice accretion on wind turbine blades. Comput. Mech. 2020, 66, 311–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thapa, M.; Missoum, S. Uncertainty quantification and global sensitivity analysis of composite wind turbine blades. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Safe. 2022, 222, 108354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeong, M.S.; Cha, M.C.; Kim, S.W.; Lee, I.; Kim, T. Effects of torsional degree of freedom, geometric nonlinearity, and gravity on aeroelastic behavior of largescale horizontal axis wind turbine blades under varying wind speed conditions. J. Renew. Sustain. Ener. 2014, 6, 023126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.; Wen, B.; Dong, X.; Peng, Z.; Qu, Y.; Zhang, W. Aerodynamic and aeroelastic characteristics of flexible wind turbine blades under periodic unsteady inflows. J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerod. 2020, 197, 104057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, D.O.; Kwon, O.J. A coupled CFD-CSD method for predicting HAWT rotor blade performance. In Proceedings of the 51st AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Grapevine, TX, USA, 7–10 January 2013. [Google Scholar]
- CTI Materials. Available online: https://www.ctimaterials.com (accessed on 26 June 2024).
- Bortolotti, P.; Berry, D.; Murray, R.; Gaertner, E.; Jenne, D.; Damiani, R.; Barter, G.; Dykes, K. A Detailed Wind Turbine Blade Cost Model; Technical Report, NREL/TP-5000-73585; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2019.
- Kim, H.J.; Cho, J.-R. Effects of graphene reinforcement on static bending, free vibration, and torsion of wind turbine blades. Materials 2024, 17, 3332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Material | (GPa) | (kg/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|
GPL | 1010.0 | 0.186 | 1060 |
Epoxy | 3.0 | 0.340 | 1200 |
(GPa) | (kg/m3) | ||
---|---|---|---|
0.01 (1%) | 11.8 | 0.338 | 1199 |
0.02 (2%) | 20.7 | 0.337 | 1197 |
0.03 (3%) | 30.0 | 0.335 | 1196 |
0.04 (4%) | 38.5 | 0.334 | 1194 |
Model | Mass (kg) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gelcoat | E-LT-5500 (UD) | Saertex (DB) | SNL (Triax) | Foam | Carbon (UD) | Total | |
Present | 29 | 338 | 921 | 8726 | 4160 | 2655 | 16,829 |
Ref. [35] | 29 | 376 | 916 | 8784 | 3953 | 2638 | 16,696 |
Model | Natural Frequency (Hz) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Flapwise | 1st Edgewise | 2nd Flapwise | 2nd Edgewise | 3rd Flapwise | 1st Torsion | |
Present | 0.8415 | 0.9930 | 2.7269 | 3.5918 | 5.7255 | 6.7280 |
Ref. [25] | 0.87 | 1.06 | 2.68 | 3.91 | 5.57 | 6.45 |
Ref. [36] | 0.90 | - | 2.85 | - | 6.41 | 6.65 |
Ref. [37] | 0.9194 | 1.0552 | 2.8106 | 3.8870 | 5.6904 | 6.7152 |
Ref. [38] | 0.84 | 0.969 | 2.41 | - | - | - |
Outcome | Fiberglass | ) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.0 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | ||
(%) | - | 2.7 | 3.1 | 3.5 | 4.1 | 4.8 | 5.7 | 7.2 | 10.0 | 14.6 | 28.1 |
Max. flapwise deflection (m) | 4.25 | 4.26 | 4.22 | 4.22 | 4.19 | 4.19 | 4.18 | 4.15 | 4.08 | 4.03 | 3.85 |
Max. edgewise deflection (m) | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.78 | 0.79 | 0.78 | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.76 | 0.78 | 0.79 |
Max. torsional deformation (°) | −2.95 | −2.31 | −2.26 | −2.26 | −2.22 | −2.20 | −2.20 | −2.14 | −1.85 | −1.94 | −1.75 |
Material | Mass (kg) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fiberglass | ) | ||||||||||
1.0 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | ||
Gelcoat | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 | 29 |
E-LT-5500 | 338 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Saertex (DB) | 921 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
SNL (Triax) | 8726 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Foam | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 | 4160 |
Carbon (UD) | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 | 2655 |
Epoxy | - | 6213 | 5630 | 5050 | 4466 | 3885 | 3304 | 2717 | 2116 | 1512 | 861 |
GPL | - | 152 | 159 | 162 | 169 | 173 | 176 | 186 | 208 | 228 | 297 |
Total weight | 16,829 | 13,209 | 12,633 | 12,056 | 11,484 | 10,905 | 10,333 | 9755 | 9191 | 8611 | 8050 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kim, H.J.; Cho, J.-R. In-Depth Study on the Application of a Graphene Platelet-reinforced Composite to Wind Turbine Blades. Materials 2024, 17, 3907. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163907
Kim HJ, Cho J-R. In-Depth Study on the Application of a Graphene Platelet-reinforced Composite to Wind Turbine Blades. Materials. 2024; 17(16):3907. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163907
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Hyeong Jin, and Jin-Rae Cho. 2024. "In-Depth Study on the Application of a Graphene Platelet-reinforced Composite to Wind Turbine Blades" Materials 17, no. 16: 3907. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163907