Systematic Evaluation of Adhesion and Fracture Toughness in Multi-Material Fused Deposition Material Extrusion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Adhesion Evaluation
2.2.1. Sample Preparation
2.2.2. Design of Experiment (DoE) for Multi-Material Adhesion
- Material Print Order (MPO): The material print order signifies the position of the materials in the printed samples. In four of the eight combinations, CFPA was placed at the bottom, and in the other four, the bottom layer was TPU 95A. As the pressure of the material being applied is known to affect interlayer adhesion, the material printing order and, therefore, the resistance of the deposition surface may influence the adhesion process.
- Ironing (I): Ironing is a process where mechanical pressure is applied with the extruder on the deposited material layer, which in turn exerts pressure on the interface between the top two beads to increase the adhesion between, in this case, the soft and stiff materials. Figure 3 provides a schematic of the ironing process. During the ironing process, the extrusion material is retracted back into the nozzle, stopping the extrusion process such that the nozzle tip is only used to apply pressure to the top surface of the previously deposited beads. Ironing seeks to achieve benefits similar to mechanical rollers, which have been shown to increase interlayer adhesion without the need for extra hardware or printer modification. As can be seen in Figure 3, inter-bead voids are created due to the non-rectangular shape of the beads which can be reduced by applying mechanical pressure with the ironing process. This helps in increasing the bond width and subsequently increases the inter layer adhesion. In this study, ironing was performed over the area where there was no Kapton tape and was only applied on the first layer of the second material (14th layer). Ironing is a built-in feature available in the slicing software (Ultimaker Cura 5.4.0). Table 3 contains the parameters used in the ironing process.
- Hot air gun (HA): A hot air gun was used to manipulate the manufacturing environment by raising the temperature of the print surface. When the printing with the lower material was complete, the print process was stopped automatically using the “pause” command in the gcode to allow for the placement of the Kapton film prior to depositing the first layer of material 2. The hot air gun was turned on when the build plate started moving from the halted position, and its motion continued for two minutes. Hot air was applied near the end of the film at the section that was not covered by the Kapton film. When the extruder started depositing material 2 on the uncovered section, the hot air supply was stopped.
2.2.3. Mechanical Testing Procedure
2.3. Thermal History Monitoring
2.4. Microstructure Analysis via X-ray CT
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Design of Experiments for Inter-Material Fracture Toughness
- The hot air gun parameter is the only process parameter providing a statistically significant effect on increasing the interface adhesion (increasing of ). It produces a standardized effect of 4.73, which is significant given the threshold effect of 2.037 (cf. Figure 5c). When switching from the low level (hot air gun OFF) to the high level (hot air gun ON), the mean moves from 12.3 kJ/m2 to 33.4 kJ/m2, as shown in Figure 5d.
- The MPO and the ironing process parameters do not produce a statistically significant effect on adhesion, as shown in Figure 5c, in which the standardized effects of both cases are lower than the threshold effect (2.037). However, ironing played an influential role in reducing porosity which can be seen in the later section. Also, the interaction among all three studied process parameters has no remarkable effect.
3.2. Thermal History Results
3.3. Microstructure Results
3.4. Summary of Results
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | CFPA | TPU 95A |
---|---|---|
Nozzle Temperature | 260 °C | 227 °C |
Print Speed | 35 mm/s | 25 mm/s |
Nozzle Diameter | 0.8 mm | |
Bead Width | 0.8 mm | |
Layer Height | 0.25 mm | |
Build Plate Temperature | 70 °C |
Combination | Material Print Order | Ironing | Hot Air Gun |
---|---|---|---|
A | −1 | −1 | −1 |
B | +1 | −1 | −1 |
C | −1 | +1 | −1 |
D | +1 | +1 | −1 |
E | −1 | −1 | +1 |
F | +1 | −1 | +1 |
G | −1 | +1 | +1 |
H | +1 | +1 | +1 |
Parameters | Values |
---|---|
Pattern | Zigzag |
Line Spacing | 0.4 mm |
Flow | 0% |
Inset/Distance from the edge | 0.8 mm |
Speed | 10 mm/s |
Combination | Standard Deviation | |
---|---|---|
A | 8.34 | 4.89 |
B | 18.08 | 11.21 |
C | 11.18 | 8.11 |
D | 13.85 | 5.23 |
E | 27.67 | 13.42 |
F | 28.70 | 15.82 |
G | 41.70 | 43.31 |
H | 42.12 | 6.83 |
Sample | Void Volume Fraction in CFPA | Void Volume Fraction in TPU | Void Volume Fraction at the Interface | Average Void Volume Fraction |
---|---|---|---|---|
Combination A | 17.6% | 2.5% | 6.8% | 11.3% |
Combination H | 13.1% | 2.6% | 5.1% | 8.6% |
Worst Parameter—Combination A | Best Parameter—Combination H | Improvement | |
---|---|---|---|
Fracture Toughness [kJ/m2] | 8.34 | 42.12 | 405% |
Relative Time [s] (Time above Tg) | 108 | 326 | 202% |
Void Volume Fraction (%) | 11.3 | 8.6 | 24% |
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Jafor, M.A.; Sayah, N.; Smith, D.E.; Stano, G.; Fleck, T.J. Systematic Evaluation of Adhesion and Fracture Toughness in Multi-Material Fused Deposition Material Extrusion. Materials 2024, 17, 3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163953
Jafor MA, Sayah N, Smith DE, Stano G, Fleck TJ. Systematic Evaluation of Adhesion and Fracture Toughness in Multi-Material Fused Deposition Material Extrusion. Materials. 2024; 17(16):3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163953
Chicago/Turabian StyleJafor, Md Abu, Neshat Sayah, Douglas E. Smith, Gianni Stano, and Trevor J. Fleck. 2024. "Systematic Evaluation of Adhesion and Fracture Toughness in Multi-Material Fused Deposition Material Extrusion" Materials 17, no. 16: 3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163953