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Review

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Applications for Enhancing Soil Fertility and Crop Nutritional Qualities: A Review

by
Emmanuel Oladeji Alamu
1,2,*,
Michael Adesokan
2,
Segun Fawole
2,
Busie Maziya-Dixon
2,
Tesfai Mehreteab
3 and
David Chikoye
1
1
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Southern Africa Research and Administration Hub (SARAH) Campus, Lusaka 10101, Zambia
2
Food and Nutrition Sciences Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan 20001, Nigeria
3
Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Oluf Thesens vei 43, 1431 Ås, Norway
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2023, 14(3), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030635
Submission received: 15 February 2023 / Revised: 14 March 2023 / Accepted: 14 March 2023 / Published: 21 March 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contributions of Agroforestry to Ecosystem Services and Climate Action)
Browse Figure
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp is a well-known agroforestry leguminous tree that provides multiple benefits in different agroecological zones. Its apparent versatility is seen in improving animal feed, cleaning environmental wastes, and healing inflammations. It was also found to have significant benefits in agroforestry due to its ability to enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and green manure. However, this article reviews the use of Gliricidia sepium to improve soil fertility and crop agronomic and nutritional properties. Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct were the databases consulted for the relevant articles used in this review. Trees and leaves of G. sepium, either used as mulch, biochar, or intercropped, have enhanced soil fertility indicators, such as total soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, available phosphorus, pH, cation exchange capacity, and soil organic matter in different farming systems. Its immense positive performance in improving the yield of crops led to an economic advantage for low-income farmers. G. sepium can also lower the use of mineral fertilizer as its adoption grows, leading to a greener environment in the agricultural sector. The review concluded that there is a plethora of research on the effect of Gliricidia on maize yield enhancement; hence further investigations should be conducted on using Gliricidia sepium as a green fertilizer to improve yields and the nutritional properties of other crops.

1. Introduction

Legume trees are essential in reforestation programs, soil preservation, and green manure. They were reported to have high growth capacity, providing ecosystem services such as biomass production, recycling of nutrients, nitrogen (N) fixation, and carbon (C) sequestration [1]. Using leguminous trees in biomass production in alley cropping systems shows excellent potential in enhancing agricultural production and sustainability [2]. They improve soil fertility, increase crop productivity, and ensure the sustainability of tropical agroecosystems through nitrogen fixation, shade provision, green manuring, and mulch production [3,4]. N-fixing leguminous trees and N-mineral fertilizers are used to recover heavily degraded soils [5]. Legume trees were also used for several other applications, including controlling pests and diseases, as supplements in animal feed, and as sustainable raw materials for electrical energy production [6,7,8,9].
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp (G. sepium) is a medium-sized legume tree native to Central America but also grows naturally in Santa Rosa and Veracruz, Mexico. G. sepium is from the Fabaceae family, the most prominent family in the plant world, and is mainly considered a source of relatively valuable plant protein [10]. It is sometimes called the “alfalfa of the tropics” because it has better water usage efficiency than alfalfa and may be used as forage by livestock [11]. It is a well-known multipurpose tree due to its ability to adapt well to various soils, including alkaline, acidic, sandy, heavy clay, and limestone [12]. However, it thrives best in medium-textured, well-drained, and fertile soils with near-neutral acidity [13]. Gliricidia was reported as a non-aggressive invader because it is a light-demanding species and unlikely to invade dense plant communities. However, it is often plagued with Aphis craccivora, which blackens the leaves and makes them fall prematurely [13]. The use of Gliricidia in agroforestry is due to its ability to adapt very well to a wide range of soils and a very high level of soil salt stress. The adaptation to soil salinity stress is seen in its ability to produce new leaves about two weeks after losing all leaves due to abrupt salinity stress [12]. G. sepium is a dominant crop for alley cropping in tropical and subtropical regions [3]. Its biochar application for the removal of caffeine in water and detoxification of coir pith was also reported [14,15], while Grygier et al. [10] recommended Gliricidia sepium as an unconventional source of oil, with oil yields similar to that of soybean (Glycine max). Furthermore, several authors reported using Gliricidia leaves (Figure 1) and trees for anthelmintic purposes. The wound healing effect of Gliricidia leaves grown in Indonesia, and the Philippines was studied. The authors found that the leaves contain flavonoids, saponins, and tannins, which act as anti-inflammatory agents, enhancing the healing process [9]. The active effect of ethanolic leaf extract of Gliricidia against Anopheles stephensi and gastrointestinal nematodes was also reported [16,17], while acetonic extract was used to control the intestinal nematode of ruminants [18]. However, this article aimed to review the applications of Gliricidia trees and leaves in improving soil quality parameters and crop nutritional properties. This review article focuses on; (a) the different ways in which Gliricidia was applied to improve soil fertility components (soil microbial composition, soil carbon, and nitrogen fixing in soils), (b) the impact of Gliricidia on crop agronomic performance and nutritional components, and (c) the synthesis of the knowledge gaps in Gliricidia sepium utilization for crop production as it relates to the nutritional composition of different crops. A review of this kind is essential as it presents insight into the application of Gliricidia in agroforestry practice for improving food crops’ yield and nutritional composition.

2. Impact of Gliricidia sepium on Soil Fertility

Legume trees that grow quickly are potentially valuable to farmers in the tropics and could improve soil productivity as they do not require extensive agronomic inputs [19]. The trees and leaves of G. sepium, used in different forms, found applications in enhancing soil fertility, which is indicated by total carbon, nitrogen, available phosphorus, pH, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, soil aggregation, bulk density, and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) composition [20].

2.1. Impact of G. sepium on Soil Microbial Composition

Silvopastoral systems are agroforestry management practices that integrate trees, forage, and livestock. The effect of silvopastoral systems with shrub tree legumes on the structure, diversity, and abundance of total bacterial, diazotrophic, and ammonium-oxidizing bacterial communities at different places around the legumes was evaluated [21]. The authors’ findings affirmed that introducing G. sepium and Mimosa caesalpiniifolia into the silvopastoral system with Brachiaria decumbens improved soil physical quality by promoting the abundance and spatial heterogeneity of the nitrogen-cycling bacterial community. This results in better growth conditions for the soil microbes and aids diazotroph diversity [21]. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of biochar produced from Gliricidia sepium stems (BC-Gly) and rice husks (BC-RiH) on the growth of coconut seedlings. BC-Gly significantly affected the soil microbial community structure influencing plant growth rate, though biochar application did not affect the estimated total microbial biomass. The concentration of fungal estimated by the total phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) was significantly (p  <  0.05) increased by BC-Gly amendment, and this increase was more apparent under the dry soil condition.
Additionally, the BC-Gly amendment greatly affected the concentration of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) [22]. A study by Riyanto [23] aimed to determine the application of various local microorganisms (LMO) to the growth and yield of new rice varieties in rainfed rice fields. Local microorganisms from Gliricidia sp. leaves produced the highest populations of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. However, it was discovered that LMO Gliricidia sp. leaves achieved the lowest population of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria. In a no-tillage system, the soil was subjected to treatments with mixtures of leguminous trees to study their impact on soil macrofauna. Gliricidia + Acacia (G + A) treatment extended essential ecosystem functions in the no-tillage agrosystem due to the functional groups, including soil engineers, predators, and litter transformers. These fast-growing leguminous trees can increase soil acidity and decrease soil macrofauna diversity; however, the harmful effects of leguminous tree cover are minor relative to the environmental benefits [24].

2.2. Impact of G. sepium on Soil Carbon

The impact of the Gliricidia-maize intercropping system on soil properties was investigated. Gliricidia-maize intercrop positively affected soil organic matter, particulate organic matter (POM), and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Gliricidia increased POM-carbon by 62% over sole maize. Additionally, the POM-C value of Gliricidia treatment was significantly (p = 0.0001) greater than only maize treatment with 48 kg ha−1 nitrogen added [25]. In Brazil, an agrisilviculture system was used to enhance the quality of organic carbon and organic matter of clayey Oxisol soil. The system in which corn is intercropped with Panicum maximum cv. Massai and Gliricidia sepium improved soil quality and short-term carbon sequestration [26]. Gliricidia mulch from the leaves and twigs was reported to produce more crop biomass and recycled more soil C. Therefore, adopting no-till mulch (G. sepium) curtailed energy use, carbon footprint, and cultivation costs, thereby enhancing energy use efficiency [27,28]. Clay soil is characterized by its heavy weight, high porosity, and low dry bulk density. In assessing the soil nutrient under the Gliricidia agroforestry system in the maize district of Zambia, incorporating Gliricidia sepium leaf biomass into the farming system improved the soil health in eastern Zambia by improving the soil organic matter and soil carbon stocks. Additionally, the leaf biomass served as a source of cheap organic fertilizer as an alternative to the more expensive inorganic fertilizers. This alternative source of fertilizer presented by Gliricidia sepium will mitigate the environmental contamination caused by nitrous oxide emissions by reducing the need for inorganic fertilizers [29]. G. sepium can be used as live support for restoring degraded black pepper plantations and overall improvement in soil quality in the plains of the tropics. G. sepium registered more excellent soil organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved organic nitrogen, and mineral nitrogen in its rhizosphere, improving soil fertility [30]. A study on the effects of shade trees and spacing regimes on the availability of soil and plant nutrients showed that total soil carbon and total nitrogen were significantly higher in the Theobroma + Gliricidia plantation with 12 m × 12 m spacing [31]. In a Gliricidia + maize intercropping system, Gliricidia tree prunings were applied to the soil continuously for ten years. The sequestered carbon in the topsoil (0–20 cm) in Gliricidia + maize was 1.6 times more than in sole maize, while soil carbon dioxide evolution also improved in the Gliricidia-maize plot [32].

2.3. Impact of G. sepium on Soil Nitrogen Fixation

The application of nitrogen (N) fixing tree species affects, to a great extent, the rates of N mineralization and other N transformations [33]. In a study to evaluate the effect of leaf extracts of neem and G. sepium on emissions of methane (CH4), carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), and nitrogen (I) oxide (N2O) in urea amended and unamended soil samples, and to study the dynamics of inorganic nitrogen (N) in the soil samples; it was observed that the application of aqueous extracts of the leaves improved the soil quality by increasing the available N for crop growth and controlling the pests in the soil, even though extracts of Gliricidia leaves did not reduce the emission of CH4 by the evaluated soil samples [34]. The Gliricidia-maize intercrop was reported to affect soil organic matter significantly, particulate organic matter (POM), and cation exchange capacity (CEC). CEC, a significant factor in soil nitrogen fertility, was maintained in coarse-textured soils over 14 years by the Gliricidia-maize intercrop. Gliricidia positively affected the soil’s nitrogen (N) parameters as it increased inorganic N from 7.93 g kg−1 in sole maize to 12.8 in the intercrop; however, the Gliricidia intercrop decreased soil phosphorus. By improving soil fertility, the Gliricidia sepium/maize intercropping system can increase productivity in maize-based cropping systems [25]. In Ghana, Omari et al. [35] enhanced soil fertility using mixtures of eight different tropical plant materials with chicken manure as soil amendments for growing tomatoes. Of all the treatments, Gliricidia + chicken manure improved soil fertility significantly by releasing more mineral N; however, this did not translate to more yield for the tomato plant. Additionally, Partey et al. [36] determined how the residue quality and decomposition of Acacia auriculiformis, Albizia zygia, Azadirachta indica, Baphia nitida, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Tithonia diversifolia, Senna spectabilis, and Zea mays influence soil nitrogen availability, microbial biomass, and β-glucosidase activity. It was then concluded that the decomposed biomass of Tithonia diversifolia, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Senna spectabilis, and Azadirachta indica leaves might improve soil fertility in the short term. Still, a long-term build-up of organic matter may be restricted due to accelerated decomposition. However, the long-term build-up of soil organic matter may be constrained due to the accelerated decomposition of the plant materials. This could lead to high economic costs for small-scale farmers because they must apply these organic materials every planting season. Méndez-Bautista et al. [37] reported that applying the extract of G. sepium leaves to beans favoured their development compared to untreated plants but had no significant effect on soil nitrification.

2.4. Impact of G. sepium on Other Soil Fertility Components

Serpentine soil is known to limit the growth of plants as it is characterized by a high natural abundance of heavy metals, such as nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), and chromium (Cr), and is low in plant nutrients, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) [38]. The immobilization of heavy metals in serpentine soil and enhancement of the soil calcium (Ca) uptake using woody biochar of Gliricidia sepium biomass were effectively achieved, thereby improving the growth of tomatoes on the amended soil. The woody biochar was produced by slow pyrolysis of ground Gliricidia biomass in a muffle furnace at 300 °C and 500 °C at 7 °C min−1. However, it was observed that the woody biochar pyrolyzed at 500 °C and used at a high application rate effectively immobilized heavy metals in the soil [39]. Biochar is a carbon-rich material synthesized by burning organic biomass in the absence or partial absence of oxygen at high temperatures (usually from 300 to 1000 °C) [40]. The qualities, properties and impacts of biochar on soils are primarily influenced by the type of feedstock used and pyrolysis conditions [41]. Kuntashula and Mafongoya [42] also investigated the use of participatory research methods in evaluating the application of legume trees in improving soil fertility by engaging farmers in eastern Zambia. During the experiment, 112 farmers rated 11 agroforestry trees, and the result shows that over 90% of the farmers gave G. sepium a maximum score for soil fertility improvement. The woody biochar of Gliricidia sepium decreased the soil’s bulk density and air capacity in a study meant to investigate the effect of biochar amendment on enhancing the quality of clay soil, primarily due to weight dilution generated by the biochar. Additionally, soil porosity, moisture at field capacity, and available water capacity were affected by biochar amendment [43]. A decomposition innovation to improve soil nutrients in a cocoa plantation was developed. It was reported that adding Gliricidia leaf waste improved cocoa leaf waste’s decomposition and nutrient release rate [44].
Agroforestry trees improve the physical properties of soils by adding large quantities of litterfall, root biomass, root activity, biological activities, and roots, leaving macropores in the soil following their decomposition [45]. As highlighted in the reviewed articles, woody biochar biomass, intercropping, leaf extract, leaf mulching, and biomass are the various forms in which Gliricidia sepium is utilized for improving soil fertility components, such as soil microbial population, soil bulk density, soil organic carbon, soil inorganic N fixation, and heavy metals immobilization. The various forms in which agroforestry legume trees can be used (Table 1) indicate their versatility in agricultural applications, as this was also confirmed by farmers’ practice of continuously keeping G. sepium in their farmlands because they are aware of the value of the tree crop in improving soil fertility [46] and by the positive response from farmers in a participatory study [42]. Gliricidia sepium is a fast-growing agroforestry tree with a significant characteristic of a relatively deep root system that enables it to capture leached nutrients along the soil profile, thereby accumulating nutrients that otherwise could not be accessed by other crops. These nutrients are made available to the soil surface from leaf biomass and other forms in which the agroforestry tree is utilized, thereby increasing soil fertility [29]. The adaptability of Gliricidia sepium in improving the nutrients of different soil types (in various locations) makes it a green and environmentally friendly alternative to inorganic fertilizers.

3. Impact of Gliricidia sepium on Crop Performance and Crop Nutritional Properties

Gliricidia sepium tremendously impacted food crops’ yield and nutritional composition, especially maize, as shown in Table 2 and Table 3. Bandara et al. [39] experimented with immobilizing heavy metal using woody biochar of Gliricidia sepium biomass. Pyrolysing G. sepium biochar at 500 °C and applying it to the soil at 110 t/ha immobilized toxic chromium, nickel, and manganese, increased the calcium/magnesium ratio, and facilitated the uptake of essential nutrients (nitrogen, potassium, and sodium); thereby increasing tomato plant growth associated with increased plant biomass. The effect of the amendment of biochar on saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), soil aeration, available water capacity, and biomass and grain yields of maize was also investigated by Obia et al. [43]. They reported significantly higher maize biomass and grain yields in plots treated with biochar compared to the control plots. In contrast, Omari et al. [35] said in their experiment that the Gliricidia treatment (coupled with chicken manure) did not enhance the yield of tomato fruit.
Coulibaly et al. [47] found that adopting Gliricidia sepium as fertilizer trees in Malawi increased the value of food crops by 35%, positively affecting household food security. At the same time, it was also reported that Gliricidia sepium intercropped with maize in Malawi enhanced soil health renewal and maize yield and significantly increased the nutritional composition of the crop [48]. Makumba et al. [49] demonstrated the Gliricidia-maize intercropping system to be a suitable option for soil fertility improvement and maize yield increase in sub-Saharan Africa, where inorganic fertilizer use is minimal. They found that applying Gliricidia prunings increased maize yield three-fold over sole maize cropping without soil amendments and improved topsoil nutrients. Additionally, the use of Gliricidia leaves in alley cropping to improve the nitrogen uptake of sweet corn was reported [50]. G. sepium can improve nitrogen use efficiency, increase soil organic matter, and maintain the cations base, thereby enhancing maize grain yield in infertile tropical soil [51]. Coe et al. [52] reported increased maize yield with Gliricidia intercropping, though they raised concerns about the applicability of agroforestry techniques in diverse locations with different environmental properties. A two-year experiment assessed the impact of shrub and herbaceous mulch types on soil characteristics and maize nutritional content. Awopegba et al. [53] reported that Gliricidia sepium, one of the shrub mulches evaluated, enhanced maize’s nutrient composition and yield when applied at 5 t/ha. They also observed that adopting Gliricidia sepium, Tithonia diversifolia, and Calopogonium mucunoides mulches could meet the maize nutritional requirement of the people and improve soil properties on a tropical alfisol. In Brazil, Gliricidia manure increases maize grain yield and soil organic matter content by enhancing soil chemical properties, such as pH, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, calcium, and magnesium, cation exchange capacity, and base saturation in the upper soil layer [54]. Applying Gliricidia leaf biomass as mulch with supplemental phosphorus fertilizer systematically increased the total dry weight of maize in maize + Gliricidia intercropping. Additionally, Gliricidia leaf biomass as mulch reduced weed dry weight compared with the control experiment [55].
The potential of intercropping maize with Gliricidia to control weeds was evaluated [56,57,58]. The authors observed that although maize-Gliricidia showed good potential in enhancing grain yield, it was not a viable option for weed control. However, hoeing was reported to be a better option. Although Gliricidia-maize intercropping was reported to increase maize yield, Sileshi et al. [59] evaluated the yield stability of maize–Gliricidia intercropping and fertilized monoculture maize. It was reported that maize yields remained more stable in maize–Gliricidia intercropping than in fertilized maize monoculture in the long term. However, average yields may be higher with complete fertilization. Therefore, considering the long-term yield stability and the accessibility of Gliricidia to low-income farmers, Gliricidia-maize intercropping is recommended. An agroecological study was conducted in Zambia in which the effect of the agroforestry system involved utilizing Gliricidia sepium to improve soil nutrients, crop yield, and nutritional properties of food crops. Gliricidia sepium was cultivated in alley cropping with maize, soybean, and groundnut. It enhanced the yield of the cultivated crops by more than twofold and improved the crops’ nutritional properties. Intercropping maize with soybean and groundnut with Gliricidia improved crop diversification, enhancing crop resistance to climate change [29].
Swamila et al. [60] investigated the willingness and ability of farmers to adopt the Gliricidia agroforestry technology on their farms. Results of the experiment show that the most critical factor affecting the technology is the upfront cost because most of the production cost of investing in Gliricidia agroforestry technology is incurred in the first year of project establishment but has long-term biophysical and economic benefits. The authors also argued that based on the other environmental benefits attributed to the adoption of Gliricidia agroforestry technology, it has a high adoption potential among farmers in Tanzania. In the same vein, the profitability of the Gliricidia-maize system relative to an unfertilized sole maize system was assessed, and it was found that the Gliricidia-maize intercropping technology is profitable with time. It can potentially boost household income and food security because the monetary benefits accrued after the first year of the establishment can offset the initial investment costs. However, helping farmers overcome initial investment costs will aid the rapid adoption of Gliricidia-maize intercropping, especially among low-income farmers [61].
Cotton and sunflower nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) accumulation and biomass productivity were enhanced by adding Gliricidia pruning mixed with cattle manure. In contrast, Gliricidia-cotton intercropping is a cost-effective option for smallholder cotton farmers [62,63]. The development of beans was favored when the soil was treated with extracts of G. sepium [37]. The insecticidal effect of G. sepium leaf extracts was demonstrated. This extract repelled insects from the plants, increased the overall yield of maize and stimulated the growth of tomato plants [64,65].
The application of Gliricidia in cocoa production was also reported [66,67,68,69]. In Indonesia, cacao plants were shaded with G. sepium, and it was reported that contrary to general belief, cacao bean yield was not decreased by shading. However, the shading of cacao plants resulted in greater leaf longevity due to reduced exposure of cacao to atmospheric drought [67]. Bai et al. [69] reported that the leaf litter of G. sepium enhanced the growth of cacao trees by showing a higher average concentration of total nitrogen, boron, iron, and phosphorus. The debris of G. sepium leaves also showed a rapid release of potassium after one month of decomposition and a low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio.
The effect of G. sepium mulch from whole leaves and chopped leaves and branches on yields and the water use efficiency of carrot plants were investigated. It was found that G. sepium mulch from entire leaves and mineral fertilization led to higher yields and water use efficiency of the carrot plants [70]. As reported by Ilangamudali et al. [71], a study in Sri Lanka assessed the potential of using coconut-based G. sepium agroforestry systems to improve the soil fertility of degraded coconut lands. The study revealed that G. sepium replenished soil fertility of degraded coconut-growing soils by giving higher soil organic matter, total nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, and microbial activity. Additionally, in Sri Lanka, the effects of different mulching materials on growth, yield, quality parameters of ginger, and soil parameters were assessed. Soil treatment with Gliricidia mulch gave the maximum number of sprouted plants, the highest plant height, and the highest number of pseudostems per clump. The authors concluded that Gliricidia is the best mulch for ginger cultivation in the low country intermediate zone of Sri Lanka [72]. Incorporating 75% nitrogen, 100% phosphorus, 50% potassium by chemical fertilizer, and 50% potassium via Gliricidia green leaf manuring improved soil fertility and yield of soybean cultivated in Vertisols [73].
Cassava genotype TMS 4(2)1425 was reported by Okon et al. [74] to respond positively to Glomus deserticola inoculation in conjunction with a mixture of Gliricidia sepium + Senna siamea mulch. The Gliricidia mulch significantly enhanced the yield of the cassava sample due to its ameliorating effects on soil structure and nutrient content. A G. sepium substrate formulated based on 50% mill compost with 50% Gliricidia sepium effectively produced yellow passion fruit seedlings with excellent vegetative growth rates [75]. Carpenter et al. [76] investigated the effect of mineral fertilization on interplanting two species of legume trees (Inga edulis and Gliricidia sepium) on the growth of Terminalia amazonia. G. sepium intercropped with Terminalia amazonia was reported to increase yield and restore forestry. In contrast, sweet potato yield was not enhanced at the second planting on soil fallowed by G. sepium [77]. This could be a result of the method of application in which the leguminous crops were used as fallow and were cleared off the field before planting.
Table
Table 2. Summary of the application of Gliricidia for improving crop quality.
Table 2. Summary of the application of Gliricidia for improving crop quality.
CropGliricidia
Application Mode		Gliricidia Application EffectLocationReference
MaizeIntercroppingEnhanced soil health and maize yieldMalawi[48]
MaizeIntercroppingSoil fertility and maize yield improvedMalawi[49]
Maize***Improved food crops and household food securityMalawi[47]
MaizeIntercroppingYield enhancedMalawi[52]
Quality Protein MaizeIntercroppingNutritional value improvedBrazil[78]
MaizeIntercroppingImproved yieldBrazil[79]
MaizeIntercroppingImproved yieldBrazil[54]
MaizeIntercroppingImproved yieldBrazil[51]
MaizeMulchingImproved YieldNigeria[53]
Sweet cornLeaf pruningNitrogen uptake improvedMalaysia[50]
TomatoWoody biocharFacilitated nutrient uptake and increased plant biomassSri Lanka[39]
CottonIntercroppingNutrient accumulation and biomass productivity was enhancedMalawi[62]
CacaoIntercroppingLeaf longevityIndonesia[69]
Maize, soybean and groundnutIntercroppingImproved yield and nutritional propertiesZambia[29]
*** Review article.
Table
Table 3. Application of Gliricidia to improve maize yield.
Table 3. Application of Gliricidia to improve maize yield.
Yield
CropGliricidia PlotSole Maize PlotInorganic Fertilizer PlotReference
Maize5.52 t ha−11.48 t ha−1NE[48]
Maize597.67 kg acre−1478.75 kg acre−1NE[47]
Maize3.62 t ha−12.73 t ha−1NE[52]
Maize* 2.5 Mg ha−1(GA)/
2.6 Mg ha−1 (GC)		0.4 Mg ha−10.6 Mg ha−1[78]
Maize5.618 kg ha−16.714 kg ha−1NE[79]
Maize5.21 Mg ha−13.03 Mg ha−12.81 Mg ha−1[54]
Maize1.41 t ha−10.63 t ha−12.19 t ha−1[53]
Maize4520 kg ha−11227 kg ha−15954 kg ha−1[29]
* alley cropping; NE-not evaluated; GA—Gliricidia + Acacia; GC—Gliricidia + Clitoria.

4. Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations

Gliricidia sepium tremendously impacted food crops’ yield, and nutritional composition, especially maize. However, more studies need to be conducted to establish the effect of applying Gliricidia sepium on other essential crops’ yield and nutritional composition. Cocoa, cotton, tomato, black pepper, soybean, and groundnut are a few of the crops for which the effect of Gliricidia sepium on their agronomic and nutritional components was scarcely investigated. Therefore, the impact of Gliricidia sepium on the agronomic and nutritional composition of food crops, especially roots and tubers, should be investigated. In studying the application of G. sepium on the nutritional composition of food crops, it is vital to explore the various forms of Gliricidia application, such as mulching, biochar, intercropping, and using leaf extracts. This will lead to having a plethora of scientific knowledge on the best form of Gliricidia application for the different crops. A bottleneck for the widespread adoption of Gliricidia sepium is the initial cost of the establishment, even though its profit for farmers is in the long term. This upfront investment in agroforestry technology poses a challenge for low-income farmers who may need more financial strength for such an investment. However, they know the long-term benefits. Therefore, it is recommended that governmental bodies and research organizations work in tandem with low-income farmers to subsidize the initial cost of implementing the Gliricidia agroforestry technology; this will increase the adoption rate of the technology. Training smallholder farmers on agroforestry practices should also be intensified to increase the adoption rates of Gliricidia fertilizer trees. Information on the differences between Gliricidia biochar and biochar produced from other materials might be lacking and recommended for study.

5. Method Summary

The articles (2012 to 2022) for this review were obtained from three different databases (PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar). The PubMed database was searched using the term “Gliricidia,” and relevant articles for our study were extracted. The Science Direct database was also used, with the search term “gliricidia” used. An advanced search was also carried out, with the terms “gliricidia” and “legumes” being looked up in manuscript abstracts and titles. The agricultural, biological, and environmental sciences were the subject areas that were searched. The search results provide relevant reviews and research articles for our study. The Google Scholar database was searched using the terms “gliricidia intercropping” + “maize,” “gliricidia intercropping” + “soybean,” and “gliricidia intercropping” + “groundnut”. The search results were examined, and pertinent articles were extracted based on the following inclusion criteria: Information based on evidence on Gliricidia (soil quality/fertility, crop yield/performance, and crop nutritional quality and safety). A preliminary screening of the retrieved literature’s abstracts and contents was performed to determine its suitability for inclusion in the more in-depth reviews that followed. After removing duplicates and accounting for the scope of this study, we narrowed the list of potential literature reviews down to 79 articles. The review and revision were completed in about four months (November 2022 to February 2023), with five authors involved in the literature search, extraction, and review.

6. Conclusions

This review highlighted the importance of G. sepium as a leguminous plant used in various agroforestry practices to improve many food crops’ yield and nutritional composition. Trees and leaves of G. sepium, either used as mulch, biochar, or intercropped, have improved soil fertility components and the yield of maize grains (up to a threefold yield). Gliricidia trees, when intercropped, have a tremendous impact on fixing nitrogen components in the soil, improving sequestered soil carbon, reducing the negative impacts of heavy metals on soil fertility, and, by extension, enhancing the proper development of crops. Low-income farmers have benefited economically due to G. sepium’s positive impacts in increasing crop yields because it decreased their demand for mineral fertilizers, which are frequently out of reach due to their expensive cost. In addition, the leaf of G. sepiun has been found to have an anti-inflammatory function due to the high content of flavonoids and saponins, thereby aiding the healing process. In addition to the benefits of G. sepium on soil and crops, widespread use of G. sepium intercropping will contribute to a greener environment by reducing the use of chemicals that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere in the agricultural sector.

Author Contributions

The contributions of the authors are provided below. Conceptualization, E.O.A., M.A. and B.M.-D.; Literature search, E.O.A., M.A., S.F., T.M. and D.C.; writing—original draft preparation; E.O.A., M.A. and S.F.; writing—review and editing: E.O.A., B.M.-D., T.M. and D.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

No funding was received for this work.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of NORAD (funder). NIBIO, ICRAF, and CO-MACO were involved in the Gliricidia project in Zambia. We also recognize the contribution of Yvonne Olatunbosun (IITA Science Editor), who proofread the entire manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Forests 14 00635 g001 550
Figure 1. Photo of Gliricidia sepium leaves.
Figure 1. Photo of Gliricidia sepium leaves.
Forests 14 00635 g001
Table
Table 1. Summary of the application of Gliricidia for soil quality improvement.
Table 1. Summary of the application of Gliricidia for soil quality improvement.
Soil Traits EvaluatedGliricidia Application Mode Gliricidia Application EffectReference
Emissions of CH4, CO2, and N2OAqueous leaf extractsSoil available N increased[9]
Heavy metalsWoody biochar of Gliricidia biomassCalcium uptake improved, and heavy metals immobilized[39]
Microbial populationIntercroppingImproved the population and heterogeneity of the soil nitrogen-cycling bacterial [21]
Organic carbon and organic matterIntercroppingImproved soil organic matter and carbon sequestration[26]
Soil fertilityPlant pruningIncreased soil mineral nitrogen[35]
Soil fertilityPlant biomassImproved soil fertility[36]
Soil fertilityGliricidia mulchCurtailed energy use, carbon footprint[27]
Soil healthGliricidia leaf biomassImproved soil organic matter and soil carbon stocks.[29]
Soil properties Intercropping An improvement in soil organic matter, particulate organic matter, and cation exchange capacity.[25]
Soil qualityIntercropping Enhanced soil organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, -nitrogen, and mineral nitrogen in black pepper rhizosphere[30]
Availability of soil nutrientsIntercroppingSoil total carbon and total nitrogen improved[31]
Carbon sequestrationIntercroppingSoil carbon sequestered and carbon (IV) oxide evolution also improved[32]
Cocoa leaf decomposition and soil nutrientsGliricidia leavesCocoa leaf waste decomposition and nutrient released rate improved[44]
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MDPI and ACS Style

Alamu, E.O.; Adesokan, M.; Fawole, S.; Maziya-Dixon, B.; Mehreteab, T.; Chikoye, D. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Applications for Enhancing Soil Fertility and Crop Nutritional Qualities: A Review. Forests 2023, 14, 635. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030635

AMA Style

Alamu EO, Adesokan M, Fawole S, Maziya-Dixon B, Mehreteab T, Chikoye D. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Applications for Enhancing Soil Fertility and Crop Nutritional Qualities: A Review. Forests. 2023; 14(3):635. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030635

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alamu, Emmanuel Oladeji, Michael Adesokan, Segun Fawole, Busie Maziya-Dixon, Tesfai Mehreteab, and David Chikoye. 2023. "Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Applications for Enhancing Soil Fertility and Crop Nutritional Qualities: A Review" Forests 14, no. 3: 635. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030635

APA Style

Alamu, E. O., Adesokan, M., Fawole, S., Maziya-Dixon, B., Mehreteab, T., & Chikoye, D. (2023). Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp Applications for Enhancing Soil Fertility and Crop Nutritional Qualities: A Review. Forests, 14(3), 635. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030635

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