Immune Response to Chikungunya Virus: Sex as a Biological Variable and Implications for Natural Delivery via the Mosquito
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Innate Immune Response to CHIKV
2.1. Role Type I Interferons during CHIKV Infection
2.2. Innate Immune Cells during CHIKV Infection
2.3. Role of Pattern Recognition Receptors in Innate Immunity to CHIKV
3. Adaptive Immune Response to CHIKV
4. Sex and Age as Biological Variables in CHIKV Immune Response
4.1. Sex as a Biological Variable
4.2. Age as a Biological Variable
5. Contribution of Mosquito Saliva to CHIKV Pathogenesis
Host Species | Virus (Strain If Provided) | Vector Species + Method | Impact on Host Response | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Swiss albino pups | CHIKV (DRDE-06) | Ae. aegypti bite + SubQ needle inoc. | increased morbidity and mortality | [71] |
higher skin viral RNA load and viremia | ||||
more extensive viral dissemination | ||||
dysregulated cytokine release | ||||
enhanced cellular infiltration | ||||
BALB/c mice | SFV4 (pCMV-SFV4) | Ae. aegypti bite + SubQ needle inoc. | extensive edema (viral inoculum retained at bite site) | [73] |
transient increase in skin neutrophils | ||||
CD-1 mice (2 weeks) | CHIKV (LR 5’GFP) | Ae aegypti bite inoculation | suppression of Th1 cytokines, enhancement of Th2 cytokines | [74] |
downregulation of TLR3 expression | ||||
downregulation of IFN-gamma expression | ||||
Human dermal fibroblasts | CHIKV (LR2006_OPY1) | Ae. aegypti saliva | decreased ISG expression | [75] |
downregulation of STAT2 and pSTAT2 | ||||
increased CHIKV titer over time | ||||
Hu-NSG Mice | CHIKV (37997) | Ae. aegypti bite inoculation | exhibit more human-like CHIKV symptomology | [76] |
increased circulating CHIKV RNA | ||||
increased dissemination over needle-inoculation | ||||
differential cell recruitment compared to needle inoculation | ||||
Human Keratinocytes | DENV | recombinant Aedes salivary proteins (putative 34 kDa) | (1) decreased IFN-I mRNA expression | [71,77] |
(2) decreased IRF3 and IRF7 mRNA expression | ||||
(3) suppressed antimicrobial peptide expression | ||||
(4) increased viral RNA titers |
6. Gaps in Knowledge
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Taylor, M.; Rayner, J.O. Immune Response to Chikungunya Virus: Sex as a Biological Variable and Implications for Natural Delivery via the Mosquito. Viruses 2023, 15, 1869. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091869
Taylor M, Rayner JO. Immune Response to Chikungunya Virus: Sex as a Biological Variable and Implications for Natural Delivery via the Mosquito. Viruses. 2023; 15(9):1869. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091869
Chicago/Turabian StyleTaylor, Meagan, and Jonathan O. Rayner. 2023. "Immune Response to Chikungunya Virus: Sex as a Biological Variable and Implications for Natural Delivery via the Mosquito" Viruses 15, no. 9: 1869. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15091869