The Role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Pathogenesis of Corneal Ulcer, Its Associated Virulence Factors, and Suggested Novel Treatment Approaches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Corneal Infections
2.1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Associated Corneal Infections in Contact Lens Wearers
2.2. Uncommon Species of Pseudomonas in Corneal Infections
3. Modulation of Corneal Protein and Host Defence during Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pathogenicity
4. Virulence Factors Associated with P. aeruginosa in Ocular Infections
4.1. Type III Secretion System (T3SS) of P. aeruginosa
4.2. The Role of Condensins in P. aeruginosa CL Infections
4.3. Exoenzymes’ Pathogenesis Associated with P. aeruginosa Corneal Infection
5. Cytotoxic Strains of P. aeruginosa
6. Genetic and Phenotypic Features of P. aeruginosa
7. Drug-Resistance and Treatment Options of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Corneal Infection
8. Drug Delivery in the Treatment of P. aeruginosa Cornea Infection
8.1. Use of Predatory Prokaryote as Antimicrobial
8.2. Bacteriophages as Phage Therapy
9. Potential Drug Targets in P. aeruginosa Keratitis
10. Nanomedicine in Keratitis
10.1. Benefits of Nanomedicine in Keratitis
10.2. Levofloxacin
10.3. Ciprofloxacin
11. Future Research Directions
12. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
OS | Ocular surface |
TCU | Traumatic corneal ulcer |
HC | Healthy control |
PAK | P. aeruginosa keratitis |
CLWs | Contact lens wearers |
VA | Visual acuity |
PMN | Polymorphonuclear neutrophils |
MMP | Matrix metalloproteinases |
HIF1A | Hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha |
NO | Nitric Oxide |
IL1B | Interleukin-1beta |
NE | Norepinephrine |
CL | Contact lens |
IgA | Immunoglobulin A |
LPS- sIgA | Soluble IgA against lipopolysaccharide |
ETA-sIgA | Soluble IgA against exotoxin A |
Exo | Exotoxin |
EF-2 | Elongation factor 2 |
HCEC | Human cultured corneal epithelial cells |
T3SS | Type III Secretion System |
c-di-GMP | Cyclic diguanylate |
GSH | Glutathione |
GSSG | Oxidized glutathione |
PPK1 | Polyphosphate kinase 1 |
PLC | Phospholipase C |
PASP | P. aeruginosa small protease |
FAS | Factor activating Exoenzyme S |
ADPr | ADP-ribosyltransferase |
TER | Transepithelial Resistance |
SOD | Superoxide dismutase |
XDR | Extensively drug-resistant |
MPC | Methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine |
MK | Microbial keratitis |
CXL | Corneal collagen cross-linking |
M-CXL | Modified CXL |
FI | Frequent instillations |
HCLE | Human corneal-limbal epithelial |
TNF | Tumour necrosis factor |
TEM | Transmission electron microscopy |
Appendix A
Sl. No | Resistant Antibiotic | Sensitive Antibiotic | Treatment Duration | County | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Amikacin, Aztreonam, Cefepime, Ceftazidime, Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin, Imipenem, Levofloxacin, Meropenem, Piperacillin/Tazobactam and Tobramycin | Colistin | 5 weeks | Peru | [121] |
2 | Fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, macrolides, sulphonamides, and tetracycline | Not reported | - | Australia and India | [122] |
3 | Ciprofloxacin | Not reported | - | India | [123] |
4 | Ceftriaxone and ceftazidime | Piperacillin or imipenem | - | India | [124] |
5 | All β-lactam antibiotics, fluoroquinolones and gentamicin | Tobramycin and amikacin | - | German | [125] |
6 | Penicillin, amoxicillin and flucloxacillin | Gentamicin, amikacin, ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin | - | United Kingdom | [126] |
7 | Cephotaxime, cefuroxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, chloramphenicol, vancomycin, amikacin, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, co-trimoxazole, and piperacillin-tazobactam | Imipenem | - | India | [127] |
8 | Cefalotin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin and vancomycin | Gentamicin or tobramycin | - | Australia | [128] |
9 | Ampicillin, piperacillin/tazobactam, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, cefepime, imipenem, meropenem, gentamicin, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole | Ceftazidime, vancomycin and moxifloxacin | - | Mexico | [129] |
10 | Minocycline, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and chloramphenicol | Piperacillin/tazobactam | - | USA | [130] |
11 | Trimethoprim and Erythromycin | Bacitracin, Vancomycin, Moxifloxacin and Ofloxacin | - | USA | [131] |
12 | Ciprofloxacin and gentamicin | Ceftazidime, tobramycin, and piperacillin/tazobactam | - | Canada | [132] |
13 | Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole | Ceftazidime plus gentamicin | 3 days | Portugal | [133] |
14 | Amikacin, gentamicin, vancomycin, cephazolin, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, and chloramphenicol | Piperacillin/tazobactam | 3 days | India | [134] |
15 | Ceftazidime, gentamicin, ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin | Not reported | - | Saudi Arabia | [135] |
16 | Amikacin, Chloramphenicol, Ceftazidime, Ciprofloxacin, Cefazolin, Gatifloxacin, Gentamicin, Imipenem, Moxifloxacin, Ofloxacin, and Tobramycin | Imipenem/cilastatin, Colistin and Colistimethate | 3 to 7 days | India | [83] |
17 | Amikacin, Gentamicin, Tobramycin, minocycline, Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, Imipenem, meropenem and Ceftazidime | 1.5% levofloxacin | 3 days | Japan | [136] |
18 | Moxifloxacin | Ciprofloxacin and Gatifloxacin | - | USA | [137] |
19 | Chloramphenicol, ceftazidime, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin | Not reported | - | Malaysia | [138] |
20 | Moxifloxacin | Not reported | - | India | [72] |
21 | Ciprofloxacin | Vancomycin and tobramycin | 6 days | USA | [139] |
22 | Cefazolin, Neomycin and Chloramphenicol | Ofloxacin, Ceftazidime, Gentamicin and Polymyxin B | - | Saudi Arabia | [140] |
23 | Gentamicin and tobramycin | Ceftazidime | 21 days | Israel | [141] |
24 | Imipenem, ciprofloxacin, tobramycin, piperacillin, levofloxacin, ceftazidime, gentamicin and polymyxin B | Not reported | - | Australia and India | [142] |
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Badger-Emeka, L.; Emeka, P.; Thirugnanasambantham, K.; Alatawi, A.S. The Role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Pathogenesis of Corneal Ulcer, Its Associated Virulence Factors, and Suggested Novel Treatment Approaches. Pharmaceutics 2024, 16, 1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16081074
Badger-Emeka L, Emeka P, Thirugnanasambantham K, Alatawi AS. The Role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Pathogenesis of Corneal Ulcer, Its Associated Virulence Factors, and Suggested Novel Treatment Approaches. Pharmaceutics. 2024; 16(8):1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16081074
Chicago/Turabian StyleBadger-Emeka, Lorina, Promise Emeka, Krishnaraj Thirugnanasambantham, and Abdulaziz S. Alatawi. 2024. "The Role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the Pathogenesis of Corneal Ulcer, Its Associated Virulence Factors, and Suggested Novel Treatment Approaches" Pharmaceutics 16, no. 8: 1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16081074