Finding Common Ground between United Kingdom Based and Chinese Approaches to Earthen Heritage Conservation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- applying structural interventions such as grouting cracks and wooden rod anchorages to the walls [31].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Comparison of Policies and Practices
2.2. Approach to the Workshop
2.3. Workshop Case Study: Suoyang Ancient City
2.4. Discussions
2.5. Questionnaire
- A five-point Likert-type scale used for value questions. The scale ranged from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important) with 3 as neutral.
- An adapted seven-point semantic differential/Likert-type scale with true opposites used for questions relating to conservation strategies. Pairs of mutually exclusive words, such as ‘visible’ and ‘not visible,’ were placed at the left and right ends of a horizontal scale. The scale ranged from 3 (left hand side concept is essential) to 0 (neutral) to 3 (right hand side concept is essential).
- An adapted seven-point semantic differential, Likert-type scale with false opposites. This differed from the previous question type as the pairs of words at the opposite ends of the scale were not mutually exclusive. This question type was included to force the respondents to think whether they had a preference towards one option. If both were of equal importance, the participant would choose 0.
Analysis of Questionnaire Results
3. Results
3.1. Policy and Practice Comparisons
3.1.1. Policy
3.1.2. Practice
3.2. Workshop and Questionnaire Outcomes
3.2.1. Value
3.2.2. Conservation Strategies
4. Discussion
4.1. Policy and Practice
4.2. Values
4.3. Conservation Strategies
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- Single choice tick box questions were used to understand the preferred choice of a respondent or to quantify/calibrate a concept.
- Multiple choice tick box questions were used to understand the range of actions a respondent might choose.
- A five-point Likert-type scale was used for the questions relating to value. The scale ranged from 1 (not important) to 5 (very important) with 3 as neutral. Intermediary numbers did not have word descriptions to produce more equal spacing between the numbers on the scale.
- An adapted seven-point semantic differential/Likert-type scale with true opposites was used for questions relating to conservation strategies. Pairs of mutually exclusive words, such as “visible” and “not visible,” were placed at the left and right ends of a horizontal scale. The scale ranged from 3 (left hand side concept is essential) to 0 (neutral) to 3 (right hand side concept is essential). As with the five point Likert-type scale, the intermediary numbers did not have word descriptions attached to them to produce more equal spacing between the numbers on the scale.
- An adapted seven-point semantic differential, Likert-type scale with false opposites was also used for questions relating to conservation strategies. This differed from the previous question type as the pairs of words at the opposite ends of the scale were not mutually exclusive. These questions were included to force the respondents to think about which they cared about more. If both were of equal importance, they would choose “0.”
- Open questions were used to asking the respondents to describe their preferred conservation strategy. This allowed space for any comments not raised previously in the discussion to be expanded upon.
Appendix B
References
- Houben, H.; Balderrama, A.A.; Simon, S. Our earthen architectural heritage: Materials research and conservation. MRS Bull. 2004, 25, 338–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balderrama, A.A. The conservation of earthen architecture. Conserv. Getty Conserv. Inst. Newsl. 2001, 16, 4–11. [Google Scholar]
- Twiss, K.C. The Neolithic of the Southern Levant. Evol. Anthropol. 2007, 16, 24–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The World Heritage Programme on Earthen Architecture. World Heritage: Inventory of Earthen Architecture. 2012. Available online: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002170/217020e.pdf (accessed on 22 November 2017).
- Correia, M.; Guerrero, L.; Crosby, A. Technical strategies for conservation of Earthen archaeological architecture. Conserv. Manag. Archaeol. Sites 2015, 17, 224–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Z.; Eckfeld, T. The development of conservation practices in China from the 1980s to the present. AICCM Bull. 2016, 37, 26–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matero, F.; Cancino, C. The conservation of earthen archaeological heritage: An assessment of recent trends. In TERRA 2000, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Study and Conservation of Earthen Architecture, Torquay, Devon, UK, May 2000; James & James: London, UK, 2000; pp. 11–21. [Google Scholar]
- Correia, M. Conservation in Earthen Heritage: Assessment and Significance of Failure, Criteria, Conservation Theory, and Strategies; Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2016; ISBN 9781443889292. [Google Scholar]
- Shao, M.; Li, L.; Wang, S.; Wang, E.; Li, Z. Deterioration mechanisms of building materials of Jiaohe ruins in China. J. Cult. Herit. 2013, 14, 38–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jun, Z. Comparison of Heritage Conservation Philophies in China and Other Countries. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 40–61. [Google Scholar]
- Winter, T. Beyond Eurocentrism? Heritage conservation and the politics of difference. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2014, 20, 123–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qian, F. China’s Burra Charter: The Formation and Implementation of the China Principles. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2007, 13, 255–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forster, A.M.; Thomson, D.S.; Richards, K.; Pilcher, N.; Vettese, S. Western and Eastern building conservation philosophies: Perspectives on permanence and impermanence. Int. J. Archit. Herit. 2018, in press. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhan, G. Viewing the China Principles in the International Context. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 31–39. [Google Scholar]
- Zhu, Y. Some thoughts on comparison of heritage conservation in historic cities in China and the West: A transcultural perspective. Southeast Cult. 2011, 221, 118–122. [Google Scholar]
- Bin, J. Influence of the China Principles on Archeological Site Conservation in China. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 183–193. [Google Scholar]
- Elert, K.; Sebastián, E.; Valverde, I.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C. Alkaline treatment of clay minerals from the Alhambra Formation: Implications for the conservation of earthen architecture. Appl. Clay Sci. 2008, 39, 122–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elert, K.; Pardo, E.S.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C. Alkaline activation as an alternative method for the consolidation of earthen architecture. J. Cult. Herit. 2015, 16, 461–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, H.-Y.; Zhu, S.-B.; Li, M.; Zhang, X.-C. Water Repellency of Monument Soil Treated by Tung Oil. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2016, 34, 205–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Selwitz, C.; Coffman, R.; Agnew, N. The getty adobe research project at Fort Selden III: An evaluation of the application of chemical consolidants to test walls. In 6th International Conference on the Conservation of Earthen Architecture; Agnew, N., Ed.; The Getty Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1990; pp. 255–260. [Google Scholar]
- Selwitz, C. Saving the Fort Selden ruins: The use of a composite blend of chemicals to stabilize fragile historic adobe. Conserv. Manag. Archaeol. Sites 1995, 1, 109–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z. Consolidation of a Neolithic earthen site with potassium silicate. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Conservation of Earthen Architecture: Adobe 90 preprints; Grimstad, K., Ed.; Getty Conservation Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1990; pp. 295–301. [Google Scholar]
- Oliver, A. Conservation of earthen archaeological sites. In Terra Literature Review: An Overview of Research in Earthen Architecture Conservation; Avrami, E.C., Guillaud, H., Hardy, M., Eds.; The Getty Institute: Los Anglese, CA, USA, 2008; pp. 80–96. [Google Scholar]
- Alva, A.; Chiari, G. Protection and conservation of excavated structures of mudbrick. In Conservation on Archaeological Excavations, with Particular Reference to the Mediterranean Area, Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property; Stanley-Price, N., Ed.; ICCROM: Rome, Italy, 1995; pp. 101–112. [Google Scholar]
- Chaudhry, C.; Sikka, S. Conservation treatments for earthen structures in the Western Himalayas of India. APT Bull. 2009, 40, 35–42. [Google Scholar]
- Oliver, A.; Getty Adobe Project; Getty Conservation Institute; Museum of New Mexico. Fort Selden Adobe Test Wall Project: Phase I: Final Report; Getty Conservation Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Caperton, T. Fort Selden Ruins Conservation. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Conservation of Earthen Architecture: Adobe 90 preprints; Grimstad, K., Ed.; Getty Conservation Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1990; pp. 209–211. [Google Scholar]
- Fodde, E.; Khan, M.S. Affordable Monsoon Rain Mitigation Measures in the World Heritage Site of Moenjodaro, Pakistan. Int. J. Archit. Herit. 2013, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lister, R.H.; Lister, F.C. Aztec Ruins on the Animas, Excavated, Preserved and Interpreted; Western National Parks Association: Tuscon, AZ, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Hughes, R. A review of works at the world heritage monument of moenjodaro, Pakistan. In Preserving Archaeological Remains In Situ; Corfield, M., Hinton, P., Nixon, T., Pollard, M., Eds.; Museum of London Archaeology Service: London, UK, 1998; pp. 26–30. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Z.; Wang, X.; Sun, M.; Chen, W.; Guo, Q.; Zhang, H. Conservation of Jiaohe ancient earthen site in China. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2011, 3, 270–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chiari, G. Chemical surface treatments and capping techniques of earthen structures: A long-term evaluation. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Conservation of Earthen Architecture: Adobe 90 Preprints; Grimstad, K., Ed.; The Getty Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1990; pp. 267–273. [Google Scholar]
- Warren, J. Conservation of Earth Structures; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Arzaga, A.G.; Baca, L.F.G.; Contreras, F.U. International Collaborations to Preserves Earthen Architectural Heritage. In TERRA 2008, Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on the Study and Conservation of Earthen Architecture; Rainer, L., Rivera, A.B., Gandreau, D., Eds.; The Getty Conservation Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2008; pp. 383–387. [Google Scholar]
- Agnew, N.; Demas, M.; Sullivan, S. The development of the China Principles: A Review to Date. In International Principles and Local Practice of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 11–30. [Google Scholar]
- Drury, P.; McPherson, A. Conservation Principles Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable Management of the Historic Environment 2008; English Heritage: London, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- ICOMOS China. Zhongguo Wen Wu Gu Ji Bao Hu Zhun Ze = Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China, Rev. ed.; Wen wu chu ban she: Beijing, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Sodangi, M.; Khamdi, M.F.; Idrus, A.; Hammad, D.B.; AhmedUmar, A. Best Practice Criteria for Sustainable Maintenance Management of Heritage Buildings in Malaysia. Procedia Eng. 2014, 77, 11–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, G. China’s architectural heritage conservation movement. Front. Archit. Res. 2012, 1, 10–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winter, T. Heritage conservation futures in an age of shifting global power. J. Soc. Archaeol. 2014, 14, 319–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, L. Thirty Years of Chinese Cultural Heritage Protection. Conserv. Archit. Herit. 2008, 12, 1–5. [Google Scholar]
- Starn, R. Authenticity and historic preservation: Towards an authentic history. Hist. Hum. Sci. 2002, 15, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, H.; Wan, X.; Fan, X. Rethinking authenticity in the implementation of China’s heritage conservation: The case of Hongcun Village. Tour. Geogr. 2014, 16, 799–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Y. Cultural effects of authenticity: Contested heritage practices in China. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2015, 21, 594–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, Z. Evolution of Cultural Heritage Conservation Philosphy Through the Lens of Revised China Principles. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Han, F.; Yang, Z.; Shi, H.; Liu, Q.; Wall, G. How to Promote Sustainable Relationships between Heritage Conservation and Community, Based on a Survey. Sustainability 2016, 8, 886–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fan, L. International influence and local response: Understanding community involvement in urban heritage conservation in China. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2014, 20, 651–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lui, T. China’s Current State and Future Challenges for the Practice of Public Participation in Cultural Heritage Conservation. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 225–241. [Google Scholar]
- Pendlebury, J.; Townshend, T. The Conservation of Historic Areas and Public Participation. J. Archit. Conserv. 2014, 5, 72–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Townshend, T.; Pendlebury, J. Public participation in the conservation of historic areas: Case-studies from north-east England. J. Urban Des. 1999, 4, 313–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jokilehto, J. Engaging conversation: Communities, place and capacity building. In Heritage, Conservation and Community: Engagement, Participation and Capacity Building; Chitty, G., Ed.; Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group: New York, NY, USA; London, UK, 2017; pp. 17–34. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, X. Conservation and management practices of the Mogao grottoes based on the principles for the conservation of heritage sites. In International Principles and Local Practices of Cultural Heritage Conservation; ICOMOS China, Ed.; ICOMOS China: Beijing, China, 2014; pp. 154–165. [Google Scholar]
Question Type | Question Number | Factor Assessing | Possible Answers |
---|---|---|---|
Values | |||
Likert-type scale (1–5) | A | Historic value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) |
B | Scientific value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) | |
C | Artistic value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) | |
D | Social value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) | |
E | Cultural value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) | |
F | Economic value | 1 (Not important)–5 (Very important) | |
Conservation strategy considerations | |||
Multiple choice (tick one) | 1 | Application area of strategy | Do nothing; Main body of the wall; Wall foundations; Surrounding environment |
2 | Location to reduce degradation | Areas experiencing degradation; Areas at future risk; Areas experiencing and at risk of degradation; All areas of the site | |
12 | Cheap installation cost | <¥10,000; ¥10,000–100,000; ¥100,000–1,000,000; ¥1,000,000–10,000,000; >¥10,000,000 | |
13 | Cheap annual maintenance cost | <¥1000; ¥1000–10,000; ¥10,000–100,000; ¥100,000–1,000,000; ¥1,000,000–10,000,000; >¥10,000,000 | |
15b | Minimal people hours for installation | <50 h; 50–200 h; 200–1200 h; 1200–2400 h; >2400 h | |
16b | Minimal people hours for monthly maintenance | <1 h; 1–10 h; 10–50 h; 50–100 h; >100 h | |
Multiple choice (tick all that apply) | 6 | Application area for strategy | No visible degradation; minor degradation; major degradation |
17 | Documentation | No documentation produced; Informal notes/write up; Internal report; External/published report | |
Semantic differential Likert Type scale. True opposites | 3 | Visibility | Visible/Not Visible |
4 | Material | Man-made/ Natural | |
5 | Number of parts | One part/Many parts | |
7 | Scale of strategy | Individual walls/Whole site | |
8 | Intervention | Interventive/Preventative | |
9 | Reduce degradation over 10 years | Not at all/Completely | |
10 | Reduce degradation over 10–50 years | Not at all/Completely | |
11 | Reduce degradation over 50+ years | Not at all/Completely | |
14 | Work force | Non-specialized/Highly specialized | |
15 | People hours for installation | Minimal/Intensive | |
16 | People hours for maintenance | Minimal/Intensive | |
18 | Access during strategy installation | Remain open to the public/Be closed to the public | |
19 | Scientific underpinning | Not researched/Extensively researched | |
23 | Permanence | Temporary/Permanent | |
24 | Reversibility | Reversible/Non-reversible | |
26 | Maintenance of authenticity | Not at all/Completely | |
27 | Maintenance of integrity | Not at all/Completely | |
Semantic differential Likert Type scale. False opposites | 20 | Policy preference | China Principles/Western conservation principles |
21 | Knowledge | Scientific knowledge/Local knowledge | |
22 | Strategy techniques | Innovative/Traditional | |
25 | Protection | Physical properties/Cultural and social properties | |
Open | 28 | Describe your preferred strategy | |
Demographic information | |||
Open | (i) | Nationality | |
Multiple choice (tick one) | (ii) | Age | Under 30 years old; 30–45 years old; 45–65 years old; Over 65 years old |
(iii) | Academic qualification | Bachelor’s Degree; Master’s Degree; Doctorate |
Five-Point Likert-Type Scales | Seven-Point Semantic Differential, Likert-Type Scales with True Opposites | Seven-Point Semantic Differential, Likert-Type Scales with False Opposites | |
---|---|---|---|
x → 0 | Heritage value not important | Ambivalence towards conservation factor | Important to consider factors on both sides of scale |
x = 0.5 | Ambivalence towards heritage value | ||
x → 1 | Heritage value very important | Factor of conservation strategy is essential | Factor of conservation strategy is essential |
China Principles | Historic England’s Conservation Principles | |
---|---|---|
What is a heritage site? | Immovable physical remains created during the history of humankind and have significance | A site goes beyond the physical material to include all characteristics that contribute to a sense of place |
What is the aim of conservation? | To preserve the existing condition and slow deterioration to the site | To manage change to a site that will sustain its values |
Values | Historic, artistic, scientific, social and cultural | Historic, evidential, aesthetic and communal |
Authenticity | Resides in original materials, workmanship and design | Attributes and elements that most truthfully reflect and embody the heritage values attached to it |
Integrity | Preserving the entirety of a site and full range of values | Wholeness and honesty |
Conservation techniques | Only techniques proven to be beneficial to reducing degradation at the site should be used. Traditional craftsmanship should be maintained | Traditional materials have known lifetimes and behaviours whereas new materials are much less certain |
Reversibility | Conservation treatments should not compromise future treatments | Ability to judge long term impact of changes is limited |
Participation | The public have a responsibility and obligation to participate in heritage conservation. All levels of government are responsible for the conservation of sites. Research should be encouraged | Everyone should be able to participate and stakeholders should be encouraged to engage with sites Experts should use knowledge to encourage learning |
Question Number | p Value |
---|---|
Q3 | 0.027 |
Q5 | 0.041 |
Q10 | 0.014 |
Q15 | 0.002 |
Q15b | 0.019 |
Q16 | 0.002 |
Q16b | 0.001 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Richards, J.; Wang, Y.; Orr, S.A.; Viles, H. Finding Common Ground between United Kingdom Based and Chinese Approaches to Earthen Heritage Conservation. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093086
Richards J, Wang Y, Orr SA, Viles H. Finding Common Ground between United Kingdom Based and Chinese Approaches to Earthen Heritage Conservation. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093086
Chicago/Turabian StyleRichards, Jenny, Yinghong Wang, Scott A. Orr, and Heather Viles. 2018. "Finding Common Ground between United Kingdom Based and Chinese Approaches to Earthen Heritage Conservation" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093086