Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in Urban Snowpack Using End-Member Mixing Analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization Model
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sampling and Chemical Determinations
2.3. Data Processing
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Chemical Composition of Particulate Matter
3.2. Identification of Pollution Sources and Their Tracers Using Correlation Analysis and End-Member Mixing Approach
3.3. Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter Using End-Member Mixing Approach
3.3.1. Differences in Source Contributions Resulting from the Use of Al-Normalized and Si-Normalized Tracer Ratios
3.3.2. Differences in Contributions of Sources Common for All the Three Cities
3.3.3. Source Attribution of Chemical Species That Were Not Used as Source Tracers
3.4. Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter Using Positive Matrix Factorization
3.4.1. PM Sources Identified in Irkutsk City and Their Contributions to Snow Pollution
3.4.2. PM Sources Identified in Shelekhov City and Their Contributions to Snow Pollution
3.4.3. PM Sources Identified in Slyudyanka City and Their Contributions to Snow Pollution
4. Conclusions
- In urban environments of Eastern Siberia, the most suitable tracers of PM sources are Si, Al, Fe and Ca. It was found that Si, Fe and Ca were the tracers of aluminosilicates, non-exhaust traffic emissions and concrete deterioration, respectively. Aluminum was found to be the tracer of both fossil fuel combustion and aluminum production. The trace elements measured in PM was not attributed to any particular source and thus could not be used as source tracers.
- The number of sources identified in each city using EMMA was equal to four, whereas the number of sources identified in Irkutsk, Shelekhov and Slyudyanka using PMF model was equal to five, four and three, respectively. Some sources identified using PMF were the combinations of two sources identified using EMMA, whereas some sources identified using EMMA were split by PMF into two sources. Despite of this, the types of pollution sources identified in each particular city using EMMA and PMF model were the same.
- The contributions of combined sources identified using PMF are similar to sums of contributions of respective single sources identified using EMMA. Moreover, the contributions of point PM sources such as aluminum production (Shelekhov) and marble quarry (Slyudyanka) evaluated using EMMA and PMF were quite similar.
- Despite the differences in number of PM sources and their contributions, the data obtained using both techniques are in agreement with existing knowledge on economic-geographical situations in studied cities. For example, the contributions of non-exhaust traffic emission and aluminosilicates calculated using both techniques increase with decrease of city size, due to increase in use of personal vehicles and application of local deicing materials (sand, gravel) instead of salt.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Al | Si | K | Ca | Ti | Cr | Mn | Fe | Ni | Cu | Zn | Sr | Pb |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irkutsk | |||||||||||||
Min | 2371 | 4381 | 97.8 | 210 | 38.8 | 1.25 | 5.90 | 405 | 1.17 | 3.01 | 2.87 | 2.51 | 0.84 |
25th | 3575 | 7882 | 287 | 578 | 77.8 | 2.54 | 13.94 | 923 | 3.48 | 5.87 | 7.79 | 11.1 | 1.77 |
Median | 4424 | 10,934 | 549 | 1288 | 167 | 4.85 | 36.33 | 1723 | 7.00 | 9.04 | 16.0 | 21.9 | 2.86 |
75th | 5304 | 14,667 | 815 | 2372 | 271 | 9.14 | 61.83 | 3932 | 14.4 | 17.6 | 27.9 | 47.5 | 5.44 |
Max | 7205 | 23,915 | 1964 | 16,457 | 632 | 24.19 | 137.94 | 7792 | 48.0 | 39.2 | 84.5 | 163 | 12.7 |
Mean | 4516 | 11,341 | 607 | 1858 | 187 | 6.45 | 42.26 | 2515 | 10.4 | 13.0 | 21.5 | 35.2 | 3.91 |
STD * | 1229 | 4069 | 409 | 2557 | 133 | 5.32 | 33.83 | 1973 | 9.67 | 9.90 | 18.0 | 36.3 | 2.90 |
Shelekhov | |||||||||||||
Min | 4002 | 2727 | 35.1 | 122 | 15.3 | 1.49 | 2.95 | 176 | 0.67 | 1.47 | 2.51 | 0.93 | 0.88 |
25th | 9760 | 6801 | 124 | 337 | 30.5 | 2.99 | 8.05 | 686 | 3.70 | 2.83 | 8.40 | 2.39 | 3.47 |
Median | 12,772 | 10,613 | 314 | 749 | 72.3 | 3.35 | 16.5 | 1026 | 5.02 | 5.56 | 16.2 | 8.10 | 4.27 |
75th | 15,933 | 12,720 | 444 | 944 | 113 | 4.58 | 23.9 | 1404 | 7.58 | 9.76 | 22.5 | 12.2 | 6.21 |
Max | 21,543 | 15,391 | 664 | 2025 | 258 | 7.99 | 95.6 | 4885 | 13.5 | 17.9 | 31.4 | 50.8 | 8.64 |
Mean | 12,221 | 9919 | 295 | 777 | 84.9 | 3.87 | 20.7 | 1201 | 5.63 | 6.32 | 15.3 | 10.2 | 4.65 |
STD | 4801 | 3491 | 180 | 492 | 59.8 | 1.72 | 19.5 | 955 | 2.93 | 4.07 | 8.75 | 11.0 | 2.09 |
Slyudyanka | |||||||||||||
Min | 587 | 997 | 41.5 | 45.0 | 7.62 | 0.24 | 0.95 | 70.7 | 0.48 | 0.59 | 0.50 | 0.34 | 0.25 |
25th | 3704 | 5977 | 261 | 1587 | 106 | 2.39 | 20.6 | 1098 | 3.20 | 6.66 | 6.70 | 27.9 | 1.63 |
Median | 4723 | 7133 | 416 | 4481 | 122 | 4.48 | 36.0 | 1775 | 5.02 | 11.2 | 9.30 | 84.2 | 2.11 |
75th | 5478 | 11,079 | 548 | 17,720 | 222 | 6.11 | 59.2 | 3215 | 7.34 | 22.9 | 17.3 | 119 | 3.80 |
Max | 7055 | 15,148 | 744 | 48,912 | 283 | 9.08 | 97.0 | 4210 | 9.92 | 30.9 | 24.1 | 170 | 6.15 |
Mean | 4686 | 8123 | 416 | 8947 | 149 | 4.46 | 43.0 | 2130 | 5.23 | 14.6 | 11.5 | 76.9 | 2.72 |
STD | 1532 | 3724 | 183 | 11,077 | 82.1 | 2.69 | 27.2 | 1218 | 2.74 | 9.77 | 7.06 | 52.2 | 1.62 |
Al | Si | K | Ca | Ti | Cr | Mn | Fe | Ni | Cu | Zn | Sr | Pb | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irkutsk | |||||||||||||
Al | 1 | ||||||||||||
Si | 0.49 * | 1 | |||||||||||
K | 0.48 | 0.68 | 1 | ||||||||||
Ca | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.49 | 1 | |||||||||
Ti | 0.46 | 0.56 | 0.94 | 0.47 | 1 | ||||||||
Cr | 0.33 | 0.29 | 0.68 | 0.48 | 0.84 | 1 | |||||||
Mn | 0.40 | 0.56 | 0.88 | 0.70 | 0.93 | 0.80 | 1 | ||||||
Fe | 0.35 | 0.49 | 0.87 | 0.50 | 0.95 | 0.84 | 0.97 | 1 | |||||
Ni | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.48 | 0.82 | 0.48 | 0.89 | 0.77 | 0.82 | 1 | ||||
Cu | 0.23 | 0.31 | 0.46 | 0.72 | 0.75 | 0.81 | 0.78 | 0.84 | 0.84 | 1 | |||
Zn | 0.19 | 0.29 | 0.68 | 0.81 | 0.50 | 0.47 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.82 | 1 | ||
Sr | 0.27 | 0.33 | 0.68 | 0.86 | 0.79 | 0.80 | 0.49 | 0.85 | 0.89 | 0.86 | 0.90 | 1 | |
Pb | 0.26 | 0.33 | 0.71 | 0.77 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.82 | 0.43 | 0.88 | 0.95 | 0.84 | 0.91 | 1 |
Shelekhov | |||||||||||||
Al | 1 | ||||||||||||
Si | −0.34 | 1 | |||||||||||
K | 0.29 | 0.11 | 1 | ||||||||||
Ca | 0.46 | 0.05 | 0.82 | 1 | |||||||||
Ti | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.90 | 0.73 | 1 | ||||||||
Cr | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.77 | 0.77 | 0.89 | 1 | |||||||
Mn | 0.14 | −0.05 | 0.71 | 0.49 | 0.91 | 0.88 | 1 | ||||||
Fe | 0.12 | −0.02 | 0.73 | 0.44 | 0.92 | 0.88 | 0.99 | 1 | |||||
Ni | 0.26 | 0.07 | 0.50 | 0.65 | 0.83 | 0.94 | 0.88 | 0.88 | 1 | ||||
Cu | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.72 | 0.88 | 0.78 | 0.87 | 0.69 | 0.50 | 0.79 | 1 | |||
Zn | 0.58 | −0.17 | 0.52 | 0.73 | 0.50 | 0.72 | 0.49 | 0.43 | 0.79 | 0.84 | 1 | ||
Sr | 0.15 | −0.13 | 0.71 | 0.58 | 0.90 | 0.86 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.87 | 0.73 | 0.47 | 1 | |
Pb | 0.22 | 0.08 | 0.48 | 0.41 | 0.63 | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.72 | 0.92 | 0.67 | 0.73 | 0.70 | 1 |
Slyudyanka | |||||||||||||
Al | 1 | ||||||||||||
Si | 0.53 | 1 | |||||||||||
K | 0.68 | 0.51 | 1 | ||||||||||
Ca | 0.17 | −0.14 | 0.32 | 1 | |||||||||
Ti | 0.76 | 0.72 | 0.69 | −0.27 | 1 | ||||||||
Cr | 0.73 | 0.77 | 0.47 | −0.33 | 0.92 | 1 | |||||||
Mn | 0.65 | 0.49 | 0.73 | −0.14 | 0.94 | 0.82 | 1 | ||||||
Fe | 0.60 | 0.48 | 0.65 | −0.20 | 0.93 | 0.86 | 0.98 | 1 | |||||
Ni | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.39 | −0.27 | 0.82 | 0.91 | 0.78 | 0.86 | 1 | ||||
Cu | 0.45 | 0.42 | 0.10 | −0.11 | 0.53 | 0.74 | 0.48 | 0.61 | 0.88 | 1 | |||
Zn | 0.52 | 0.42 | 0.54 | −0.33 | 0.82 | 0.75 | 0.80 | 0.84 | 0.83 | 0.61 | 1 | ||
Sr | 0.26 | −0.10 | 0.39 | 0.65 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.38 | 0.39 | 0.33 | 0.47 | 0.27 | 1 | |
Pb | 0.38 | 0.29 | 0.46 | −0.36 | 0.72 | 0.64 | 0.73 | 0.78 | 0.73 | 0.52 | 0.94 | 0.30 | 1 |
Pollution Source | Si/Al | Fe/Al | Ca/Al | Al/Si | Fe/Si | Ca/Si |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irkutsk | ||||||
Concrete deterioration | 3.25 | 0.91 | 0.54 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 0.45 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 1.25 | 1.11 | 0.03 | 0.66 | 0.96 | 0.05 |
Aluminosilicates | 3.65 | 0.33 | 0.14 | 0.28 | 0.10 | 0.03 |
Fossil fuel combustion | 1.11 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.73 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
Shelekhov | ||||||
Concrete deterioration | 0.98 | 0.76 | 0.53 | 2.01 | 0.39 | 0.71 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 1.06 | 0.83 | 0.07 | 1.35 | 0.94 | 0.17 |
Aluminosilicates | 2.84 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.35 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
Aluminum production | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 3.01 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
Slyudyanka | ||||||
Marble and mica mining | 2.15 | 0.60 | 6.93 | 0.92 | 0.52 | 3.96 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 2.18 | 1.54 | 0.18 | 1.03 | 1.06 | 0.12 |
Aluminosilicates | 3.51 | 0.59 | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0.13 | 0.08 |
Fossil fuel combustion | 1.74 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 1.32 | 0.25 | 0.09 |
Pollution Source | Tracers | |
---|---|---|
Si, Fe, Ca Normalized to Al | Al, Fe, Ca Normalized to Si | |
Irkutsk | ||
Concrete deterioration | 22 | 20 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 3 | 8 |
Aluminosilicates | 39 | 38 |
Fossil fuel combustion | 35 | 34 |
Shelekhov | ||
Concrete deterioration | 23 | 12 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 6 | 15 |
Aluminosilicates | 23 | 51 |
Aluminum production | 49 | 22 |
Slyudyanka | ||
Marble and mica mining | 18 | 18 |
Non-exhaust traffic emissions | 24 | 18 |
Aluminosilicates | 19 | 53 |
Fossil fuel combustion | 38 | 11 |
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Semenov, M.Y.; Onishchuk, N.A.; Netsvetaeva, O.G.; Khodzher, T.V. Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in Urban Snowpack Using End-Member Mixing Analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization Model. Sustainability 2021, 13, 13584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413584
Semenov MY, Onishchuk NA, Netsvetaeva OG, Khodzher TV. Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in Urban Snowpack Using End-Member Mixing Analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization Model. Sustainability. 2021; 13(24):13584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413584
Chicago/Turabian StyleSemenov, Mikhail Y., Natalya A. Onishchuk, Olga G. Netsvetaeva, and Tamara V. Khodzher. 2021. "Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in Urban Snowpack Using End-Member Mixing Analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization Model" Sustainability 13, no. 24: 13584. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413584