Sustainability

26 pages, 3765 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Mycelium-Based Composites in Architectural and Design Applications

by Anna Lewandowska, Maciej Sydor and Agata Bonenberg

Sustainability 2025, 17(24), 11350; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411350 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 2344

Mycelium-based composites are a promising sustainable material with inherent fire resistance and acoustic absorption properties, the extent of which depends on the fungal species, the substrate, and the growth technology. These materials exhibit superior fire performance compared to synthetic polymers, characterized by low [...] Read more.

Mycelium-based composites are a promising sustainable material with inherent fire resistance and acoustic absorption properties, the extent of which depends on the fungal species, the substrate, and the growth technology. These materials exhibit superior fire performance compared to synthetic polymers, characterized by low heat release, minimal smoke production, and a high char yield that inhibits flame spread. Some composites have even demonstrated self-extinguishing capabilities. Despite these advantageous properties, their application in the construction industry remains limited. To assess mycelium’s current trajectory, this study analyzes 90 real-world architectural and design projects. Our findings indicate that Ganoderma lucidum and Pleurotus ostreatus are the most commonly used fungi, cultivated on substrates such as straw, wood, and sawdust. Architectural applications are dominated by building blocks, insulation, and facade panels, whereas design and art applications focus on packaging, furniture, and sculptures. A key distinction emerges: architectural projects prioritize function, while artistic projects emphasize esthetic experimentation. Although commercially successful in packaging, the use of mycelium in construction is currently limited to temporary structures. Enhancing its structural and load-bearing properties through further research is essential for its widespread use in architecture. However, mycelium is poised to become a key material that drives innovation in sustainable construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Products and Services)

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22 pages, 788 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Environmental Impact of Lead-Acid Batteries: A Review of Sustainable Alternatives for Production and Recycling Based on Life Cycle Analysis

by Dimas Alberto Pincay-Pilay and Eugenio F. Carrasco

Sustainability 2025, 17(23), 10815; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172310815 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1877

Abstract

Lead-acid batteries (LAB) continue to be one of the most widely used energy storage technologies worldwide, especially in the automotive sector and in backup systems. However, their use is a significant source of lead and sulfuric acid pollution, with negative impacts on the [...] Read more.

Lead-acid batteries (LAB) continue to be one of the most widely used energy storage technologies worldwide, especially in the automotive sector and in backup systems. However, their use is a significant source of lead and sulfuric acid pollution, with negative impacts on the environment and human health. This review analyzes the environmental and health effects of LAB manufacturing, use, and recycling, and evaluates sustainable alternatives through life cycle analysis. A search was conducted in the Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), Science Direct, and Springer databases, yielding more than 247 documents, from which 84 technical and scientific articles were selected, mostly from the last five years, excluding duplicates and irrelevant texts or those in languages other than English. The results reveal that conventional pyrometallurgical processes release between 30 and 50 kg of lead fumes per ton processed, causing concentrations of up to 5000 mg/kg of Pb in soils near informal plants, exceeding international limits by more than 25 times. In contrast, closed-loop hydrometallurgical technologies reduce emissions by more than 70% and increase secondary lead recovery, making them an environmentally friendly option. It is concluded that the sustainability of the LAB system requires technological innovation, effective regulation, and extended responsibility within an eco-friendly circular economy model. Full article

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21 pages, 1920 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Reinforcement Learning-Based Energy Management in Community Microgrids: A Comparative Study

by Olimpiu Nicolae Moga, Adrian Florea, Claudiu Solea and Maria Vintan

Sustainability 2025, 17(23), 10696; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172310696 - 28 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1277

Abstract

Energy communities represent an important step towards clean energy; however, their management is a complex task due to various factors such as fluctuating demand and energy prices, variable renewable generation, and external factors such as power outages. This paper investigates the effectiveness of [...] Read more.

Energy communities represent an important step towards clean energy; however, their management is a complex task due to various factors such as fluctuating demand and energy prices, variable renewable generation, and external factors such as power outages. This paper investigates the effectiveness of a Reinforcement Learning agent, based on the Proximal Policy Optimisation (PPO) algorithm, for energy management across three different energy community configurations. The performance of the PPO agent is compared against a Rule-Based Controller (RBC) and a baseline scenario using solar generation but no active management. Simulations were run in the CityLearn framework to simulate real world data. Across the three evaluated community configurations, the PPO agent achieved its greatest improvement over a single run in the scenario where all participants were prosumers (Schema 3), with a reduction of 9.2% in annual costs and carbon emissions. The main contribution of this work is demonstrating the viability of Reinforcement Learning agents in energy optimization problems, providing an alternative to traditional RBCs for energy communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Transition and the Collaborative Governance for Reduction of Pollution and Carbon Emissions)

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37 pages, 4457 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Determinants of Renewable Energy Technology Deployment: A Systematic Review

by Svetlana Kunskaja and Aušra Pažėraitė

Sustainability 2025, 17(23), 10538; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172310538 - 25 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1128

Abstract

Accelerating the diffusion of renewable energy requires clear evidence on which determinants enable or hinder deployment across contexts. This study aims to identify the most frequently discussed contemporary determinants of renewable energy deployment. To this end, we conduct a PRISMA-guided systematic review within [...] Read more.

Accelerating the diffusion of renewable energy requires clear evidence on which determinants enable or hinder deployment across contexts. This study aims to identify the most frequently discussed contemporary determinants of renewable energy deployment. To this end, we conduct a PRISMA-guided systematic review within the SALSA framework, complemented by VOSviewer bibliometric mapping, synthesizing 110 peer-reviewed studies published between 2013 and 2025. We group the most frequently examined determinants into eight domains (economic, environmental, energy, political, regulatory, regional, technological, and social) and summarize the prevalent direction of effect reported in the literature. Economic conditions (e.g., economic growth, financial development, green finance, and trade) and policy/regulation (e.g., institutional quality, instrument stringency, and feed-in and net-billing schemes) emerge as pivotal. Environmental co-benefits (emissions reduction and air quality improvements) and energy system factors (security and energy poverty) are influential, with context-dependent roles for fossil fuel prices and consumption. Regional context (e.g., geopolitical risk) and technological progress (eco-innovation, storage, and grid integration) shape outcomes, while public acceptance, awareness, perceived benefits/costs, and demographics condition uptake. We also document contradictory findings (e.g., foreign direct investment and oil price effects) and gaps (especially social/demographic determinants and causal evaluation of specific policies). Overall, the review offers a coherent synthesis of evidence and an actionable framework of determinants to inform policy design and investment targeting for large-scale diffusion of renewable energy technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for a Sustainable Future: Towards Sustainable Energy Supply)

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36 pages, 2273 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Renewable Energy in Policy Frameworks: A Comparative Analysis of EU and Global Strategies for Sustainable Development

by Henryk Wojtaszek

Sustainability 2025, 17(23), 10567; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172310567 - 25 Nov 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2034

Abstract

The global energy transition is a central pillar of climate change mitigation and sustainable development. While international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the UN 2030 Agenda emphasize renewable energy as a driver of decarbonization, the degree of ambition and coherence across [...] Read more.

The global energy transition is a central pillar of climate change mitigation and sustainable development. While international frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the UN 2030 Agenda emphasize renewable energy as a driver of decarbonization, the degree of ambition and coherence across governance levels remains uneven. The European Union (EU), through the European Green Deal, the “Fit for 55” package, and the REPowerEU plan, has adopted legally binding targets for climate neutrality by 2050 and a 55% emission reduction by 2030. However, national implementation via National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) reveals substantial divergences among Member States. This study applies qualitative content analysis and comparative policy review to EU-level strategies, selected NECPs (Poland, Germany, France, Spain), and global frameworks (Agenda 2030, Paris Agreement, IEA, IRENA, IPCC reports). The analysis also incorporates a comparative perspective with other major economies, including China, Japan, and the United States, to situate EU policy within the global context. Documents were coded according to categories of strategic goals, regulatory and financial instruments, and identified barriers. Triangulation with secondary literature ensured validity and contextualization. The findings show that EU frameworks demonstrate higher ambition and legal enforceability compared to global initiatives, yet internal fragmentation persists. Germany and Spain emerge as frontrunners with ambitious renewable targets, while France relies heavily on nuclear power and Poland lags behind with the latest coal phase-out date. Global frameworks emphasize inclusivity and energy access but lack binding enforcement. The study contributes a comparative framework for evaluating renewable energy policies, identifies best practices and structural gaps, and highlights the dual challenge of EU climate leadership and internal coherence. These insights provide guidance for policymakers and a foundation for future research on governance and just transition pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Renewable Energy as a Pillar of Sustainable Development—a Revolution Changing the World)

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40 pages, 3169 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

From Fossil to Function: Designing Next Generation Materials for a Low Carbon Economy

by Morgan Alamandi

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10254; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210254 - 16 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1440

Abstract

The shift to a low carbon economy demands materials that minimize environmental impact while maintaining performance and scalability. This review examines sustainable alternatives across five key sectors; construction, polymers, functional materials, textiles, and electronics, and highlighting recent advances in low carbon cement, recyclable [...] Read more.

The shift to a low carbon economy demands materials that minimize environmental impact while maintaining performance and scalability. This review examines sustainable alternatives across five key sectors; construction, polymers, functional materials, textiles, and electronics, and highlighting recent advances in low carbon cement, recyclable polymers, and bio based coatings. We assess trade offs such as cost, durability, supply chain risk, and lifecycle emissions. Instead of listing emerging solutions, the paper emphasizes a unified design framework focused on performance alignment, green chemistry, criticality avoidance, and end-of-life planning. Enabling tools including machine learning, autonomous labs, lifecycle informed screening, and multiscale modeling, are also reviewed for their role in accelerating sustainable materials discovery. We highlight research gaps, methodological challenges in lifecycle data, and barriers to large scale deployment, aiming to guide more integrated and transparent material innovation. Full article

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29 pages, 2151 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review on Biochar Upgrading Methods for Its Application in Thermochemical Conversion Processes and Critical Materials Recovery

by Payam Danesh, Matteo Prussi, Andrea Salimbeni, Viviana Negro and David Chiaramonti

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10194; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210194 - 14 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1773

Abstract

With the rapid increase in solid waste generated worldwide, sustainable approaches for the recovery of resources considering environmental protection are required. As one of the emerging strategies in recent years, biochar has shown great potential due to its high carbon stabilization, adjustable porosity [...] Read more.

With the rapid increase in solid waste generated worldwide, sustainable approaches for the recovery of resources considering environmental protection are required. As one of the emerging strategies in recent years, biochar has shown great potential due to its high carbon stabilization, adjustable porosity and tunability. This review focuses on the critical assessment of the available technologies for biochar upgrading, with a specific objective of biochar physicochemical functionality improvement and critical materials recovery in line with circular economy targets. We systematically review physicochemical activation methodologies, functionalizations and leaching approaches, accounting for their effects on surface area, porosity and functional group chemistry. Particular attention is paid to the dual functionality of upgraded biochar (i) as a catalyst support for thermochemical processes and (ii) as a medium for the recycling of essential nutrients (e.g., phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium). It is evidenced that customized activation can further improve its adsorption and catalytic efficiency as well as promote near-total nutrition extraction. This review positions advanced biochar as an enabling multipurpose technology across sustainable material production, nutrient cycling and waste valorization in the circular bioeconomy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery and Use of Bioactive Materials and Biomass)

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27 pages, 1885 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Uneven Progress in Circular Economy Practices: Local Government Approaches to Waste Management in Australia

by Karishma Don, Ayon Chakraborty, Tim Harrison and Harpinder Sandhu

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10177; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210177 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1180

Abstract

Household waste systems are a frontline test of Australia’s circular economy transition, yet progress remains highly uneven and structurally constrained. Despite strong national targets for resource recovery and emissions reduction, local governments are expected to deliver circular outcomes without uniform access to infrastructure, [...] Read more.

Household waste systems are a frontline test of Australia’s circular economy transition, yet progress remains highly uneven and structurally constrained. Despite strong national targets for resource recovery and emissions reduction, local governments are expected to deliver circular outcomes without uniform access to infrastructure, funding, or technical capability. This study assesses the status, implementation, and progress of household waste management, energy recovery, and circular economy initiatives at the local government level in Australia. Using content analysis of data from 520 local government areas across six states, the study maps differences in service provision (e.g., general waste, mixed recycling, and food organics and garden organics [FOGO] collection), policy instruments, public-facing education, and participation in circular economy programs. The findings reveal that while a majority (92.5%) of councils provide general waste bins, 47% offer FOGO bins, and 78% supply mixed recyclable bins, only a small fraction (2.6%) offers a separate glass bin stream. Fewer than one in ten councils reference any form of energy recovery or waste-to-energy initiative, indicating that resource–energy integration remains emergent and geographically concentrated. Despite national policies such as the National Waste Policy Action Plan, significant regional disparities persist, particularly between metropolitan and rural councils. Guided by environmental governance theory and systems thinking, the study shows how policy fragmentation, funding limitations, and infrastructure inequities create systemic barriers to circularity. The study concludes by recommending targeted co-funding for rural councils, stronger policy support for organics and energy recovery infrastructure, and more coherent multi-level governance to achieve Australia’s 2030 waste and circular economy targets. This research contributes an evidence-based framework for understanding how governance structures and resource asymmetries shape local progress toward a circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Waste and Recycling)

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44 pages, 2549 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Natural Clay in Geopolymer Concrete: A Sustainable Alternative Pozzolanic Material for Future Green Construction—A Comprehensive Review

by Md Toriqule Islam, Bidur Kafle and Riyadh Al-Ameri

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10180; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210180 - 13 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2480

Abstract

The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) manufacturing process is highly resource-intensive and contributes to over 5% of global CO₂ emissions, thereby contributing to global warming. In this context, researchers are increasingly adopting geopolymers concrete due to their environmentally friendly production process. For decades, [...] Read more.

The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) manufacturing process is highly resource-intensive and contributes to over 5% of global CO₂ emissions, thereby contributing to global warming. In this context, researchers are increasingly adopting geopolymers concrete due to their environmentally friendly production process. For decades, industrial byproducts such as fly ash, ground-granulated blast-furnace slag, and silica fume have been used as the primary binders for geopolymer concrete (GPC). However, due to uneven distribution and the decline of coal-fired power stations to meet carbon-neutrality targets, these binders may not be able to meet future demand. The UK intends to shut down coal power stations by 2025, while the EU projects an 83% drop in coal-generated electricity by 2030, resulting in a significant decrease in fly ash supply. Like fly ash, slag, and silica fume, natural clays are also abundant sources of silica, alumina, and other essential chemicals for geopolymer binders. Hence, natural clays possess good potential to replace these industrial byproducts. Recent research indicates that locally available clay has strong potential as a pozzolanic material when treated appropriately. This review article represents a comprehensive overview of the various treatment methods for different types of clays, their impacts on the fresh and hardened properties of geopolymer concrete by analysing the experimental datasets, including 1:1 clays, such as Kaolin and Halloysite, and 2:1 clays, such as Illite, Bentonite, Palygorskite, and Sepiolite. Furthermore, this review article summarises the most recent geopolymer-based prediction models for strength properties and their accuracy in overcoming the expense and time required for laboratory-based tests. This review article shows that the inclusion of clay reduces concrete workability because it increases water demand. However, workability can be maintained by incorporating a superplasticiser. Calcination and mechanical grinding of clay significantly enhance its pozzolanic reactivity, thereby improving its mechanical performance. Current research indicates that replacing 20% of calcined Kaolin with fly ash increases compressive strength by up to 18%. Additionally, up to 20% replacement of calcined or mechanically activated clay improved the durability and microstructural performance. The prediction-based models, such as Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Multi Expression Programming (MEP), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), and Bagging Regressor (BR), showed good accuracy in predicting the compressive strength, tensile strength and elastic modulus. The incorporation of clay in geopolymer concrete reduces reliance on industrial byproducts and fosters more sustainable production practices, thereby contributing to the development of a more sustainable built environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials and Technologies for Environmental Sustainability)

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40 pages, 1451 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances in Sustainable Anthocyanin Applications in Food Preservation and Monitoring: A Review

by Adina Căta, Nick Samuel Țolea, Antonina Evelina Lazăr, Ioana Maria Carmen Ienașcu and Raluca Pop

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10104; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210104 - 12 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2809

Abstract

Anthocyanins, a group of naturally occurring flavonoid compounds, have garnered increasing attention due to their wide-ranging biological activities that suggest their considerable potential to be utilized not only as natural food colorants but also as functional additives that can enhance food preservation and [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins, a group of naturally occurring flavonoid compounds, have garnered increasing attention due to their wide-ranging biological activities that suggest their considerable potential to be utilized not only as natural food colorants but also as functional additives that can enhance food preservation and contribute to the development of health-promoting functional foods. Additionally, their sensitivity to environmental factors such as pH and temperature makes anthocyanins promising candidates for use in intelligent packaging systems, particularly as natural indicators for monitoring food freshness and quality throughout storage and distribution. Despite challenges related to their stability and regulatory acceptance, continued research into anthocyanins remains crucial for advancing sustainable, clean-label food technologies and reducing reliance on synthetic additives. To fully leverage their economic and health potential, it is essential to gain a comprehensive understanding of the various plant sources of anthocyanins, their chemical composition, extraction methods, and roles in different applications. Moreover, integrating anthocyanins into food and intelligent packaging systems presents various technical and regulatory challenges that are also summarized in this review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Food Processing and Food Preservation Techniques)

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14 pages, 6787 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intercomparison of Data Products for Studying Trends in PM_2.5 and Ozone Air Quality over Space and Time in China: Implications for Sustainable Air Quality Management

by Shreya Guha and Lucas R. F. Henneman

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10059; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210059 - 11 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1251

Abstract

Clean air is listed by the United Nations under several Sustainable Development Goals. Particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ground-level ozone (O₃) are pollutants with severe public health and environmental impacts. In China, multiple fine-scale datasets integrating ground monitors, satellites, and [...] Read more.

Clean air is listed by the United Nations under several Sustainable Development Goals. Particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ground-level ozone (O₃) are pollutants with severe public health and environmental impacts. In China, multiple fine-scale datasets integrating ground monitors, satellites, and chemical transport models have been developed to estimate PM_2.5 and O₃ concentrations, but differences between the fine-scale datasets complicate applications in exposure and policy research. This study presents the first systematic intercomparison of five PM_2.5 datasets (V5.GL.03, Ma et al. 2021, Huang et al. 2021, CHAP, TAP) and two O₃ datasets (CHAP, TAP) from 2014 to 2023, evaluated against ground-based observations at national, regional, and provincial levels. We present both operational (single time point) and dynamic (change over time) evaluations to understand how model results compare with observations for each year, and quantify the performances of the models in assessing long term changes in air quality. Results show nationwide declines in PM_2.5 (by 22.1 µgm⁻³; regional range: 8.4–30.1 µgm⁻³) and O₃ (by 28.5 µgm⁻³; regional range: 19.3–34.3 µgm⁻³). Operational and dynamic evaluation shows that CHAP consistently has higher R² (greater than 0.7 in all regions) and lower errors (less than 3.7 µgm⁻³ in all regions) compared to other datasets across most years and regions for PM_2.5. The same is true for TAP for O₃ (R² greater than 0.3 and ME less than 28.6 µgm⁻³ in all regions). However, the model performances vary spatially and temporally in alignment with several factors ranging from the number of observational monitors in a location, to recent changes in pollutant concentration levels, to extreme meteorological conditions. For example, higher predictive errors (>3.6 µgm⁻³) in operational evaluations are observed in all datasets for PM_2.5 in the sparsely monitored northwest region. Similarly, we find higher errors (ME > 28.5 µgm⁻³) in all O₃ datasets in the densely populated northern region, especially in the heavily industrialized Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air, Climate Change and Sustainability)

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28 pages, 1677 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Development of Sustainable Concrete Using By-Products as a Green Material, and Potential Solutions for Sustainability in Mass Concrete Construction—Comprehensive Review

by Hesam Afsoosbiria and Agnieszka Machowska

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 9983; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17229983 - 8 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2204

Abstract

The production of concrete strongly influences the environment. It is a versatile and sustainable construction material capable of creating a wide range of structures. It has always been indispensable as a material for the engineering and construction industry, including applications in hydraulic structures [...] Read more.

The production of concrete strongly influences the environment. It is a versatile and sustainable construction material capable of creating a wide range of structures. It has always been indispensable as a material for the engineering and construction industry, including applications in hydraulic structures (e.g., dams, underwater tunnels, sluices, and other concrete structures), where mass concrete is a fundamental material in the construction industry. Developing sustainable concrete as an alternative construction material to the traditional one provides a reduction in the carbon dioxide footprint with regard to cement use and waste material disposal in landfills. This paper provides a comprehensive review of current trends and opportunities in sustainable construction using mass concrete. It underscores the importance of incorporating eco-friendly practices to mitigate environmental impact by using by-products as green materials. The review highlights how optimizing clinker content, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), and aggregates can improve the strength, durability, and thermal stability of mass concrete. Strategic material selection helps minimize thermal cracking, extend service life, and reduce environmental impact. Future research should focus on developing advanced mix design strategies and standardized practices for sustainable infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Concrete- and Cement-Based Composite Materials)

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30 pages, 521 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Packaged Bread and Its Carbon Footprint: Balancing Convenience and Waste

by Mauro Moresi, Luana Nionelli and Alessio Cimini

Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 9957; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17229957 - 7 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1417

Abstract

The growing market for pre-sliced and packaged bread, driven by convenience and extended shelf life, raises environmental concerns due to its reliance on single-use polyethylene (PE) bags. To evaluate this trade-off, a cradle-to-distribution-center Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of white sliced bread in 4-slice [...] Read more.

The growing market for pre-sliced and packaged bread, driven by convenience and extended shelf life, raises environmental concerns due to its reliance on single-use polyethylene (PE) bags. To evaluate this trade-off, a cradle-to-distribution-center Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of white sliced bread in 4-slice modified atmosphere PE bags was conducted, following ISO 14040/14044 guidelines and using 2021–2022 factory data from Southern Italy. The initial carbon footprint (CF) of the packaged bread was estimated at 2.77 kg CO_2e/kg when using 100% Grid Electricity. The transformation phase was the largest contributor (41.5%), with electricity accounting for over 90% of this impact, followed by packaging (22.3%) and ingredients (19.4%). Allocation of by-products reduced the CF to around 2.68 kg CO_2e/kg, while the adoption of on-site renewable electricity significantly lowered impacts by up to 30% (to 1.95 kg CO_2e/kg). A key finding is the environmental trade-off between the product and its packaging: a wasted bread slice embodies approximately 70 g CO₂, whereas the production of the corresponding portion of the PE bag emits only about 5 g CO₂. This finding, which is confirmed to be statistically significant, demonstrates that the packaging’s footprint is substantially smaller than the potential impact of even a single wasted slice, proving its crucial role in preventing a larger environmental burden from food waste. Full article

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24 pages, 1076 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Eco-Innovations in Biopigment Production by Bacteria—Challenges and Future Prospects

by Justyna Możejko-Ciesielska

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9897; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219897 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1113

Abstract

The market for bio-based pigments is growing rapidly, fuelled by the demand for safe, biodegradable colourants in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and textiles. Bacterial pigments offer vibrant colours as well as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties that increase product safety and shelf life. [...] Read more.

The market for bio-based pigments is growing rapidly, fuelled by the demand for safe, biodegradable colourants in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and textiles. Bacterial pigments offer vibrant colours as well as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties that increase product safety and shelf life. Despite their benefits, the production of bacterial pigments is associated with challenges such as low yields, high costs and complex processing. Recent eco-innovations such as metabolic engineering, the use of agro-industrial waste as cheap substrates and environmentally friendly extraction methods are helping to solve these problems while promoting the principles of the circular economy. In addition, extremophilic bacteria from harsh environments provide novel pigments with unique industrial potential. This review highlights key advances in eco-innovations for bacterial biopigment production, focusing on genetic engineering, sustainable substrate use, co-production strategies, process optimisation. The role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in improving the biosynthetic efficiency of biopigments will also be analysed. Finally, current challenges and future research opportunities will be discussed to advance microbial biopigments as scalable, cost-effective and environmentally conscious alternatives to synthetic colourants in various industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Microbiology for Sustainable Bioenergy Solutions)

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21 pages, 890 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental Performance of Hermetia illucens Bioconversion in a Medium-Scale Mass Rearing System to Valorize Agri-Food Industrial Residue

by Daniele Duca, Kofi Armah Boakye-Yiadom, Ester Foppa Pedretti and Alessio Ilari

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9651; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219651 - 30 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1034

Abstract

Valorizing agri-food waste through black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) bioconversion offers a promising path to enhance circular and sustainable food systems. This study used attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental performance of BSFL reared on six agro-industrial residue diets: tomato, [...] Read more.

Valorizing agri-food waste through black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) bioconversion offers a promising path to enhance circular and sustainable food systems. This study used attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental performance of BSFL reared on six agro-industrial residue diets: tomato, pea, onion, chickpea, wheat, and liquid digestate. The Environmental Footprint 3.1 method was used to assess multiple impact categories. The rearing trials were conducted in a dedicated pilot plant (13.5 m × 2.5 m × 2.7 m) that can treat about 1.58 t of residue per cycle. From the results, BSFL biomass yields were similar across diets, with 12–15% bioconversion and 70–85% substrate reduction. BSFL protein had higher impacts than fishmeal and pea protein but was comparable to soybean meal. BSFL lipids had greater impacts than rapeseed, palm, and sunflower oils yet were similar to soybean oil for bioenergy from fat. Electricity use for climate control was the main hotspot (~85%). Scenario analysis showed that using residual heat for climate control and scaling up via optimization could cut impacts by over 80%. The findings demonstrate the potential for producing BSFL on a medium-to-large scale to enhance circularity in the agri-food sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Sustainability and Applications)

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37 pages, 4242 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advancements and Challenges in Coatings for Wind Turbine Blade Raindrop Erosion: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials and Testing

by Nur Ain Wahidah A. Yusof, Talal F. Algaddaime and Margaret M. Stack

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9611; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219611 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

Raindrop erosion of wind turbine blades’ leading edge is a critical degradation mechanism limiting wind turbine blade lifetime and aerodynamic efficiency. Protective coatings have been extensively studied to mitigate this damage. This review critically synthesises current knowledge on coating-based protection strategies against erosion, [...] Read more.

Raindrop erosion of wind turbine blades’ leading edge is a critical degradation mechanism limiting wind turbine blade lifetime and aerodynamic efficiency. Protective coatings have been extensively studied to mitigate this damage. This review critically synthesises current knowledge on coating-based protection strategies against erosion, with emphasis on (i) the underlying mechanisms of erosion, (ii) advances in conventional and emerging coating technologies, and (iii) experimental approaches for testing and lifetime prediction. Across reported studies, nanofiller reinforcement (e.g., CNTs, graphene, CeO₂, Al₂O₃) enhances erosion resistance by 60–99%, primarily through improved toughness and stress-wave dissipation. Hybrid and multifunctional systems further combine mechanical durability with self-healing or anti-icing capabilities. Experimental results confirm that erosion rate follows a power-law dependence on impact velocity, with maximum damage occurring between 45° and 60° impact angles. Softer elastomeric coatings demonstrate longer incubation periods and superior viscoelastic recovery compared with rigid sol–gel systems. Persistent gaps include the lack of standardised testing, poor field–lab correlation, and limited long-term durability data. Future work should focus on coordinating multi-stressor testing with variable-frequency rain setups to replicate real field conditions and enable reliable lifetime prediction of next-generation erosion-resistant coatings. Full article

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27 pages, 4553 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cellulose Carriers from Spent Coffee Grounds for Lipase Immobilization and Evaluation of Biocatalyst Performance

by Marta Ostojčić, Mirna Brekalo, Marija Stjepanović, Blanka Bilić Rajs, Natalija Velić, Stjepan Šarić, Igor Djerdj, Sandra Budžaki and Ivica Strelec

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9633; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219633 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1127

Abstract

In line with the circular economy approach and the pursuit of sustainable solutions for spent coffee grounds, this study investigates the valorization of spent coffee grounds as a source of cellulose-based enzyme immobilization carriers. Considering that global coffee consumption generates approximately 6.9 million [...] Read more.

In line with the circular economy approach and the pursuit of sustainable solutions for spent coffee grounds, this study investigates the valorization of spent coffee grounds as a source of cellulose-based enzyme immobilization carriers. Considering that global coffee consumption generates approximately 6.9 million tonnes of spent coffee grounds annually, their disposal represents both an environmental challenge and an opportunity for value-added applications. A multistep extraction process, including Soxhlet extraction followed by sequential subcritical extraction with ethanol and water, and alkaline treatment, led to the production of cellulose-enriched carriers. The carriers obtained were characterized by their morphology, porosity and surface properties and subsequently used for the two lipases immobilization, Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) and Pseudomonas fluorescens (PFL), using three techniques: adsorption and covalent binding via direct and indirect methods. The immobilized lipases were analyzed for key biochemical and operational properties and compared with each other and with their free enzymes. Based on their stability, catalytic activity, and reusability, the lipases immobilized by adsorption were identified as the most efficient biocatalysts. These immobilized enzymes were then used in two selected reactions to demonstrate their practical utility: cocoa butter substitute synthesis using PFL and the enzymatic pretreatment of wastewater from the oil processing industry using BCL. Both immobilized lipases showed excellent catalytic performance and maintained their high activity over four consecutive reuse cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Research on Food Science and Food Technology)

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14 pages, 7156 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agroecology of Cyperus rotundus: Emergence Dynamics of as a Tool for Sustainable Weed Management

by Stefano Benvenuti

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9543; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219543 - 27 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1510

Abstract

Trials were carried out to investigate the effects of light and temperature on C. rotundus seeds and tubers under two conditions: (i) in vitro and (ii) after sowing in soil. In the latter, seedling emergence was evaluated after sowing at increasing depths in [...] Read more.

Trials were carried out to investigate the effects of light and temperature on C. rotundus seeds and tubers under two conditions: (i) in vitro and (ii) after sowing in soil. In the latter, seedling emergence was evaluated after sowing at increasing depths in different soil textures. While dormancy was evident in over 50% of the seeds, which also required light for germination, in contrast, tubers showed a significantly shorter period of dormancy that was independent of light. Seed burial strongly hindered seedling emergence, showing an “active” seed bank only in the shallowest soil layer (few mm). In contrast, tubers showed a marked ability to emerge from a depth exceeding 40 cm. Emergence capacity was found to be proportional to the size of the tubers, attributable to the greater energy reserves needed during autotrophic pre-emergence growth. Seedling emergence from both seeds and tubers, sown at increasing depths, was inhibited to a greater extent in a clay soil texture. A lower inhibitory effect was reported for sandy soils. Tuber vitality was significantly reduced or eliminated within a few days from progressive drying following exposure to solar rays during summer periods. Finally, the data were discussed within the context of planning the agronomic management of C. rotundus, in terms of soil tillage modalities, to ensure sustainable control of this strongly invasive and persistent weed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Management)

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23 pages, 13066 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Should Agrivoltaics Ever Be Decommissioned? How Agrivoltaics Bolster Farm Climate Adaptation Even When Unpowered

by Uzair Jamil and Joshua M. Pearce

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9544; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219544 - 27 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1330

Abstract

Solar photovoltaic systems now produce the lowest-cost electricity in history and coupling with agriculture in agrivoltaics increases crop yields. This indicates solar will continue to experience explosive growth. Concerns exist, however, about the long-term end-of-life decommissioning of solar farms. For example, due to [...] Read more.

Solar photovoltaic systems now produce the lowest-cost electricity in history and coupling with agriculture in agrivoltaics increases crop yields. This indicates solar will continue to experience explosive growth. Concerns exist, however, about the long-term end-of-life decommissioning of solar farms. For example, due to fossil fuel decommissioning mismanagement, Alberta is inundated with orphaned oil and gas wells that have remediation cost estimates of CAD$100 billion. Such comparisons have prompted preemptive legislation targeting solar farms, but is the fear justified? This study addresses this question by (1) analyzing warranted and actual lifespans of key agrivoltaic system components, (2) experimentally measuring microclimate impacts of two agrivoltaic arrays (fully powered with electricity extraction and unpowered to simulate post-inverter-failure conditions) and (3) quantifying agrivoltaic yield gains based on crops previously shown to respond positively to such conditions. Experimental results indicate that unpowered photovoltaic shading not only moderates soil temperatures but also enhances soil moisture conservation relative to unshaded conditions. This study demonstrates that agrivoltaic systems, even after the cessation of power generation, can continue to deliver meaningful agronomic and economic value through passive shading and policy frameworks should adapt to this dual-use reality. Integrating agronomic co-benefits into decommissioning policy supports long-term farm productivity and climate resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Smart Renewable Energy Technologies for Developing Low-Carbon and Sustainable Societies)

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18 pages, 3017 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Vegetation Management Changes Community Assembly Rules in Mediterranean Urban Ecosystems—A Mechanistic Case Study

by Vincenzo Baldi, Alessandro Bellino, Mattia Napoletano and Daniela Baldantoni

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9516; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219516 - 26 Oct 2025

Viewed by 2429

Abstract

Urban ecosystems are structurally and functionally distinct from their natural counterparts, with anthropogenic management potentially altering fundamental ecological processes such as seasonal community dynamics and impairing their sustainability. However, the mechanisms through which management filters plant diversity across seasons remain poorly understood. This [...] Read more.

Urban ecosystems are structurally and functionally distinct from their natural counterparts, with anthropogenic management potentially altering fundamental ecological processes such as seasonal community dynamics and impairing their sustainability. However, the mechanisms through which management filters plant diversity across seasons remain poorly understood. This study tested the hypothesis that management acts as an abiotic filter, dampening seasonal community variations and increasing biotic homogenization in urban green spaces. In this respect, through an intensive, multi-seasonal case study comparing two Mediterranean urban green spaces under contrasting management regimes, we analysed plant communities across 120 plots over four seasons. Results reveal a contingency cascade under management: while the species composition remains relatively stable (+26% variability, p < 0.001), the demographic success becomes more contingent (+41%, p < 0.001), and the ecological dominance becomes highly stochastic (+90%, p < 0.001). This hierarchy demonstrates that management primarily randomizes which species achieve dominance, in terms of biomass and cover, from a pool of disturbance-tolerant generalists. A 260% increase in alien and cosmopolitan species and persistent niche pre-emption dominance–diversity patterns also indicate biotic homogenization driven by management filters (mowing, trampling, irrigation, and fertilization) that favors species resistant to mechanical stresses and induces a breakdown of deterministic community assembly. These processes create spatially and temporally variable assemblages of functionally similar species, explaining both high structural variability and persistent functional redundancy. Conversely, seasonally structured, niche-based assemblies with clear dominance–diversity progressions are observed in the unmanaged area. Overall, findings demonstrate that an intensive management homogenizes urban plant communities by overriding natural seasonal filters and increasing stochasticity. The study provides a mechanistic basis for sustainable urban green space management, indicating that reduced intervention can help preserve the seasonal dynamics crucial for sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Landscape Ecology and Sustainability—2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 555 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Adapting the Cool Farm Tool for Achieving Net-Zero Emissions in Agriculture in Atlantic Canada

by Mackenzie Tapp, Mayuri Kate, Shuqiang Zhang, Kashfia Sailunaz and Suresh Neethirajan

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9428; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219428 - 23 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

Agriculture is responsible for nearly one-quarter of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with livestock and poultry systems contributing significantly through methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Achieving net-zero agriculture demands tools that not only [...] Read more.

Agriculture is responsible for nearly one-quarter of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with livestock and poultry systems contributing significantly through methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Achieving net-zero agriculture demands tools that not only quantify emissions but also guide management decisions and foster behavioral change. The Cool Farm Tool (CFT)—a science-based calculator for farm-level carbon footprints, water use, and biodiversity—has been widely adopted across Europe and parts of the United States. Yet, despite its proven potential, no Canadian studies have tested or adapted CFT, leaving a major gap in the country’s progress toward climate-smart farming. This paper addresses that gap by presenting the first surveys of poultry and dairy producers in Atlantic Canada as a foundation for tailoring and localizing CFT. Our mixed-methods surveys examined farm practices, feed, manure, energy use, waste management, sustainability perceptions, and openness to digital tools. Results on 23 responses (20 for poultry, 3 for dairy) revealed limited awareness but moderate interest in emission tracking: dairy farmers, already accustomed to digital systems such as robotic milking and herd software, were receptive and confident about adopting CFT. Poultry farmers, by contrast, voiced greater concerns over cost, complexity, and uncertain benefits, signaling higher adoption barriers in this sector. These findings highlight both the opportunity and the challenge: while dairy farms appear ready for rapid uptake, poultry requires stronger incentives, clearer value demonstration, and sector-specific customization. We conclude that adapting CFT with regionally relevant data, AI-driven decision support, and supportive policy frameworks could make it a cornerstone for achieving net-zero agriculture in Atlantic Canada. Full article

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31 pages, 10388 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhancing Concrete Durability and Resource Efficiency Through Rice Husk Ash Incorporation: A Data-Driven Approach

by Ece Öztürk, Ceren Ince, Yuri Borgianni, Shahram Derogar, Alan M. Forster and Richard James Ball

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9382; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219382 - 22 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1862

Abstract

Cement production is responsible for approximately 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, creating an urgent need for sustainable material alternatives. This study investigates the incorporation of rice husk ash as a partial replacement for cement and sand in concrete to enhance durability and [...] Read more.

Cement production is responsible for approximately 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, creating an urgent need for sustainable material alternatives. This study investigates the incorporation of rice husk ash as a partial replacement for cement and sand in concrete to enhance durability and reduce environmental impact. A database-driven approach was applied, analyzing over 1000 data points from the literature published between 1996 and 2020. The analysis focused on correlations among key durability indicators, including chloride resistance, acid resistance, electrical resistivity, and porosity. Based on these relationships, optimal rice husk ash replacement levels were identified as 30% for cement and 20% for sand. Findings show that rice husk ash incorporation significantly improves durability and can reduce carbon dioxide emissions by up to 40%, particularly when combined with pozzolans such as fly ash and metakaolin. The study highlights that analyzing correlated durability factors is crucial for refining optimal replacement levels. This research provides a data-driven pathway for incorporating rice husk ash as an agricultural waste product into concrete and supports circular economy and resource conservation efforts. These contributions ultimately help attain the UN Sustainable Development Goals and wider sustainability targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Technologies Toward Sustainable Eco-Friendly Industry)

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37 pages, 4536 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Characterization and Sustainable Valorization of Brewers’ Spent Grain for Metal Ion and Organic Substance Removal

by Tomasz Kalak

Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9288; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209288 - 19 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2937

Abstract

Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is the dominant solid side stream from wort separation, generating about 20 kg wet BSG per 100 L of beer and contributing hundreds of millions of tons annually worldwide, and thus a strategic feedstock for circular solutions in the [...] Read more.

Brewers’ spent grain (BSG) is the dominant solid side stream from wort separation, generating about 20 kg wet BSG per 100 L of beer and contributing hundreds of millions of tons annually worldwide, and thus a strategic feedstock for circular solutions in the brewing sector. This study situates BSG within that sustainability context and assesses its performance for removing metal ions and organic contaminants. A critical literature review with selected techniques (SEM, NIR/MIR, TGA) has been combined. SEM reveals a rough, fibrous–lamellar microtexture with high pore density, large pore-area fractions, submicron median equivalent diameters, and elevated edge density, consistent with accessible surface and mass-transfer pathways. Compiled adsorption evidence shows that raw and engineered BSG effectively capture diverse cations, including Cu(II), Cr(III/VI), Pb(II), Mn(II), U(VI) and selected rare-earth elements (REEs), demonstrable reusability, and fixed-bed breakthrough on the order of tens to hundreds of hours. Preservation options (drying, cooling/freezing, thermal inactivation, oxygen control) that enable safe storage and logistics for deployment have also been outlined. Overall, BSG emerges as a reliable, scalable biosorbent, with SEM-derived descriptors providing practical tools for performance prediction, while spectroscopic and thermal methods support material monitoring and process integration within a brewery’s circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling Materials for the Circular Economy—2nd Edition)

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38 pages, 7590 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pore-Scale Evolution of Carbonate and Sandstone Reservoirs Under CO₂–Brine Interaction: Implications for Sustainable Carbon Storage

by Renata Cicha-Szot, Krzysztof Labus and Grzegorz Leśniak

Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9102; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209102 - 14 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1010

Abstract

The rise in atmospheric CO₂ intensified the urgency for carbon capture and storage (CCS), yet uncertainties remain in predicting evolution of reservoir properties under CO₂ injection. This study investigates how CO₂–brine–rock interactions alter porosity and permeability in carbonate and [...] Read more.

The rise in atmospheric CO₂ intensified the urgency for carbon capture and storage (CCS), yet uncertainties remain in predicting evolution of reservoir properties under CO₂ injection. This study investigates how CO₂–brine–rock interactions alter porosity and permeability in carbonate and sandstone reservoirs. We quantify pore-scale changes and effects of CO₂-saturated brine on rock. In calcite-rich carbonates, CO₂-induced acidification enhances permeability through selective dissolution. Dolomite-rich samples and sandstones exhibit suppressed permeability response due to slower dissolution and pore clogging. μCT and SEM reveal that although bulk porosity changes are small, local changes—especially formation of micropores and mineral occlusions—substantially influence permeability. Geochemical modeling confirms three-stage evolution: early dissolution, intermediate buffering with onset of precipitation, and long-term mineral trapping with near-steady porosity. The results indicate that early injectivity gains may be temporary and that proactive monitoring and management are required to safeguard long-term storage integrity. The findings provide actionable insight for sustainable CCS design, risk assessment, and reservoir stewardship. Full article

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24 pages, 2316 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characteristics and Material Flows of Non-Packaging Plastics in Municipal Solid Waste: A Case Study from Vienna

by Gisela Breslmayer, Lea Gritsch and Jakob Lederer

Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9105; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209105 - 14 Oct 2025

Viewed by 935

Abstract

In contrast to packaging, non-packaging plastics remain largely untargeted by EU regulations, despite their comprising over 60% of primary plastics in the EU 27 + 3 in 2022. This results in lower separate collection and recycling rates as well as fewer studies analysing [...] Read more.

In contrast to packaging, non-packaging plastics remain largely untargeted by EU regulations, despite their comprising over 60% of primary plastics in the EU 27 + 3 in 2022. This results in lower separate collection and recycling rates as well as fewer studies analysing recycling-relevant characteristics in non-packaging plastic waste (NPW), which are relevant to ensure the circularity and sustainable management of all plastics. This study presents a detailed characterisation of NPW found in mixed municipal solid waste and lightweight packaging waste on polymer and product levels, using the case study of Vienna, Austria. Results show that 4100 t/yr of polymers targeted for recycling, especially polypropylene, are currently discarded and lost in mixed MSW. A large share of NPW, however, exhibits recycling-hindering traits like multi-polymer objects or black colouring. While products made of high-quality food contact material were assessed to be ideal for separate collection to ensure closed-loop recycling, consideration should be given to collecting the majority of NPW via recycling centres to prevent contamination of target polymers with currently non-targeted other polymers. Design for recycling guidelines should also be introduced for non-packaging plastics, targeting separability, colouring and small-scale products. By doing so, a more sustainable management of NPW can be achieved. Full article

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27 pages, 2973 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Innovative Approaches to Mitigating Microplastic Pollution in Effluents and Soils

by Solange Magalhães, Luís Alves, Bruno Medronho, Ida Svanedal, Magnus Norgren and Maria Graça Rasteiro

Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9014; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209014 - 11 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2631

Abstract

Microplastic pollution represents a significant environmental challenge, as microplastics accumulate in effluents and soils, causing serious risks to ecosystems and human health. Efficient removal of these contaminants is essential to mitigate their potential adverse effects. This review summarizes and critically analyses current methods [...] Read more.

Microplastic pollution represents a significant environmental challenge, as microplastics accumulate in effluents and soils, causing serious risks to ecosystems and human health. Efficient removal of these contaminants is essential to mitigate their potential adverse effects. This review summarizes and critically analyses current methods for the removal of microplastics from effluents and soils, focusing on their effectiveness, advantages, and limitations. Conventional techniques—including filtration, flotation, chemical coagulation, flocculation, and adsorption—are discussed in the context of wastewater treatment and soil remediation. Emerging approaches, such as flocculation processes with special focus on the application of bio-based flocculants, are also highlighted as promising solutions. Key challenges in microplastic removal, including the diversity of microplastic types, their small size, and the complexity of environmental matrices, are addressed. This work intends to contribute to the urgent need for further research to develop more efficient and sustainable strategies for microplastic removal from environmental systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Research and Environmental Sustainability)

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18 pages, 2167 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Turning Organic Waste into Energy and Food: Household-Scale Water–Energy–Food Systems

by Seneshaw Tsegaye, Terence Wise, Gabriel Alford, Peter R. Michael, Mewcha Amha Gebremedhin, Ankit Kumar Singh, Thomas H. Culhane, Osman Karatum and Thomas M. Missimer

Sustainability 2025, 17(19), 8942; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198942 - 9 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1629

Abstract

Population growth drives increasing energy demands, agricultural production, and organic waste generation. The organic waste contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and increasing landfill burdens, highlighting the need for novel closed-loop technologies that integrate water, energy, and food resources. Within the context of the [...] Read more.

Population growth drives increasing energy demands, agricultural production, and organic waste generation. The organic waste contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and increasing landfill burdens, highlighting the need for novel closed-loop technologies that integrate water, energy, and food resources. Within the context of the Water–energy–food Nexus (WEF), wastewater can be recycled for food production and food waste can be converted into clean energy, both contributing to environmental impact reduction and resource sustainability. A novel household-scale, closed-loop WEF system was designed, installed and operated to manage organic waste while retrieving water for irrigation, nutrients for plant growth, and biogas for energy generation. The system included a biodigester for energy production, a sand filter system to regulate nutrient levels in the effluent, and a hydroponic setup for growing food crops using the nutrient-rich effluent. These components are operated with a daily batch feeder coupled with automated sensors to monitor effluent flow from the biodigester, sand filter system, and the feeder to the hydroponic system. This novel system was operated continuously for two months using typical household waste composition. Controlled experimental tests were conducted weekly to measure the nutrient content of the effluent at four locations and to analyze the composition of biogas. Gas chromatography was used to analyze biogas composition, while test strips and In-Situ Aqua Troll Multi-Parameter Water Quality Sonde were employed for water quality measurements during the experimental study. Experimental results showed that the system consistently produced biogas with 76.7% (±5.2%) methane, while effluent analysis confirmed its potential as a nutrient source with average concentrations of phosphate (20 mg/L), nitrate (26 mg/L), and nitrite (5 mg/L). These nutrient values indicate suitability for hydroponic crop growth and reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This novel system represents a significant step toward integrating waste management, energy production, and food cultivation at the source, in this case, the household. Full article

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20 pages, 7349 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrostatic Interactions Override Surface Area Effects in Size-Dependent Adsorptive Removal of Microplastics by Fe₃O₄ Nanoparticles

by Lei Hu, Jinxin Zhou and Daisuke Kitazawa

Sustainability 2025, 17(19), 8878; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198878 - 5 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1458

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs), as an emerging persistent contaminant, pose a potential threat to ecosystems and human health. The adsorptive removal of MPs from aqueous environments using magnetic nanoparticles has become a particularly promising remediation technology. Nevertheless, there remain significant knowledge gaps regarding its adsorption [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs), as an emerging persistent contaminant, pose a potential threat to ecosystems and human health. The adsorptive removal of MPs from aqueous environments using magnetic nanoparticles has become a particularly promising remediation technology. Nevertheless, there remain significant knowledge gaps regarding its adsorption mechanism, especially how the key physical properties of magnetic nanoparticles regulate their adsorption behavior towards MPs. This study first investigated the relationship between the particle size of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and their adsorption efficacy for MPs. The results demonstrated a non-monotonic, size-dependent adsorption of MPs by Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, with the adsorption efficiency and capacity following the order: 300 nm > 15 nm > 100 nm. This non-linear relationship suggested that factors other than specific surface area (which would favor smaller particles) are significantly influencing the adsorption process. Isotherm analysis indicated that the adsorption is not an ideal monolayer coverage process. Kinetic studies showed that the adsorption process could be better described by the pseudo-second-order model, while intra-particle diffusion played a critical role throughout the adsorption process. Furthermore, the effect of pH on adsorption efficiency was examined, revealing that the optimal performance occurs under neutral to weak acidic conditions, which is consistent with measurements of surface charges of nanoparticles. These findings suggest that the adsorption is not determined by specific surface area but is dominated by electrostatic interactions. The size-dependent adsorption of MPs by Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles provides new insights for the modification of magnetic adsorbents and offers a novel perspective for the sustainable and efficient remediation of environmental MPs pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Adsorption for the Removal of Emerging Contaminants)

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22 pages, 1102 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energy Code Compliance in Modular vs. Site-Built Multifamily Buildings: A Field Study Across Four Climate Zones

by Jonathan W. Elliott, Kevin Grosskopf and John Killingsworth

Sustainability 2025, 17(19), 8821; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198821 - 1 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 816

Abstract

Prefabrication in a controlled factory setting may improve the energy performance of modular buildings compared to traditional site-built facilities. However, few studies report empirical evidence to support this premise in full-scale operational buildings. Since energy efficiency standards in the United States are driven [...] Read more.

Prefabrication in a controlled factory setting may improve the energy performance of modular buildings compared to traditional site-built facilities. However, few studies report empirical evidence to support this premise in full-scale operational buildings. Since energy efficiency standards in the United States are driven by building code, the compliance path chosen and field verification through site inspection, an investigation of how site-built and modular projects satisfy code requirements is critical to understanding long-term energy consumption. Therefore, this study investigated and compared Energy Code Compliance (ECC) among 55 commercial multifamily buildings (25 modular and 30 site-built) in four American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers climate zones (3B, 3C, 4A and 4C). For climate zone 3, ECC analyses indicated that modular slightly exceeded site-built construction. For zone 4, site-built construction slightly exceeded modular. Nearly all buildings met or exceeded the prescriptive energy code requirements for each climate zone regardless of whether a performance or trade-off compliance path was utilized. Field observations suggest that envelope construction quality in modular buildings could be higher. Results provide insights for researchers exploring energy use in buildings, as well as the basis for a nuanced understanding of normalized operational energy consumption in an ongoing longitudinal study of the same 55 multifamily buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Management and Decarbonization Pathways in Buildings and Infrastructure)

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17 pages, 733 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Neglected and Underutilized Fish Species: The Potential Loss of Value in the Italian Context

by Margherita Masi, Yari Vecchio, Emanuele Dolfi, Ernesto Simone Marrocco, Gizem Yeter, Francesca Troise, Laura Prandini, Federica Savini, Felice Panebianco, Annamaria Pandiscia, Elisabetta Bonerba, Valentina Terio, Tiziana Civera, Andrea Serraino and Federica Giacometti

Sustainability 2025, 17(19), 8808; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198808 - 1 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1115

Abstract

This study investigates Italian fishery discards through the lens of neglected and underutilized species (NUS). It estimates the potential loss of value (PLoV) to identify pathways for sustainable valorization under the European Union landing obligation (LO). NUS were selected through a stakeholder focus [...] Read more.

This study investigates Italian fishery discards through the lens of neglected and underutilized species (NUS). It estimates the potential loss of value (PLoV) to identify pathways for sustainable valorization under the European Union landing obligation (LO). NUS were selected through a stakeholder focus group. Data regarding landings and discards were collected for the period 2020–2022 within the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty, and Forestry (MASAF) database. Among the three years, fleets landed roughly 130,400 tons annually, worth about €700 million, while discarding around 6200 tons yearly. This corresponds to an average PLoV of approximately €21.5 million. Most of the discarded quantity and value is concentrated in a few species. Atlantic Horse Mackerel stands out, accounting for nearly one-third of discarded biomass and about one-quarter of total PLoV. In 2020 and 2022, its discards even exceeded reported landings. A conservative valorization scenario for this single species indicates potential revenues of up to €7.5 million per year. Overall, these findings suggest that targeted NUS valorization could represent a way to diversify seafood consumption, alleviate pressure on common stocks, and buffer fishers’ incomes. This potential depends on ensuring traceability and safety, supported by pilots in processing, product development, and consumer acceptance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Food Processing and Food Preservation Techniques)

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22 pages, 5574 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Discarded Mattresses: From Environmental Problem to Recoverable Resource

by Javier Arias Madero, Jose Antonio Balmori Roiz, Luis-Alfonso Basterra Otero and Iker Diaz Gonzalez

Sustainability 2025, 17(18), 8371; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17188371 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 2908

Abstract

Mattresses represent one of the most widespread and problematic bulky waste streams worldwide, due to their unavoidable daily use, their high presence in municipal solid waste flows, and the complexity of their end-of-life management. Their heterogeneous composition—combining polyurethane foams, textiles, metal springs, and [...] Read more.

Mattresses represent one of the most widespread and problematic bulky waste streams worldwide, due to their unavoidable daily use, their high presence in municipal solid waste flows, and the complexity of their end-of-life management. Their heterogeneous composition—combining polyurethane foams, textiles, metal springs, and adhesives—makes separation and recovery difficult, leading many discarded mattresses to end up in landfills or incinerators, with associated greenhouse gas emissions and the loss of valuable secondary resources. Within this context, recycling emerges as a priority alternative under the circular economy framework, enabling material recovery and reducing reliance on traditional disposal methods. Among current options, mechanical recycling is especially promising, as it provides energy savings and lower emissions compared to thermal treatments. However, its large-scale implementation requires improvements in product design, collection logistics, and regulatory frameworks to address existing challenges. This article provides a critical review of the current state of mattress recycling and valorization, examining technological advances, environmental impacts, and systemic barriers. It also highlights successful initiatives in the hospitality and healthcare sectors, which illustrate the potential of circular strategies to transform bulky waste management and promote sustainable material flows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Waste and Recycling)

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17 pages, 508 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Decision Support Systems in Integrated Pest and Disease Management: Innovative Elements in Sustainable Agriculture

by Anna Tratwal, Magdalena Jakubowska and Aleksandra Pietrusińska-Radzio

Sustainability 2025, 17(18), 8111; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17188111 - 9 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2817

Abstract

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that combines ready-made plant protection methods. IPM guidelines apply to all users of plant protection products and require the prioritization of preventative methods. Adherence to IPM principles contributes to the production of healthy and safe food. [...] Read more.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that combines ready-made plant protection methods. IPM guidelines apply to all users of plant protection products and require the prioritization of preventative methods. Adherence to IPM principles contributes to the production of healthy and safe food. In Poland, the implementation of IPM into agricultural practice remains a solution to the problem. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure education and implementation of IPM at the basic or implementation level. The IPM element, particularly emphasized in the 2009/128/EC Directive, is the use of so-called warning systems, tools that address the issue of plant protection application. In this regard, it is necessary to use decision support systems (DSSs). DSSs are digital solutions that integrate meteorological, global, and field data. They include the risk of disease and pest occurrence and the timing of the application. DSSs are not part of the farmer’s experience or presentation but support them in making sound decisions. DSS reduces costs, the side effects of plant protection, and energy consumption. Examples of such solutions in Poland include the eDWIN platform and OPWS, classified, among others, in cereal protection against fungi. The aim of this article is to present the role, capabilities, and limitations of decision support systems in modern agricultural production and their importance in the context of the Green Deal and digital agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Strategies for Rural Development: Advances in Sustainable Agriculture and Responsible Agritourism)

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24 pages, 3861 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

From Microbial Heuristics to Institutional Resilience: Principles for Ecosystem Stewardship in the Anthropocene

by Salvador Sánchez-Carrillo and David G. Angeler

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 8035; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178035 - 6 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1700

Abstract

This essay proposes a transdisciplinary framework that positions cooperation as a foundational principle for ecosystem stewardship in the Anthropocene. Drawing from microbial ecology, evolutionary theory, and sustainability science, we argue that cooperation, rather than competition, is a robust and scalable strategy for resilience [...] Read more.

This essay proposes a transdisciplinary framework that positions cooperation as a foundational principle for ecosystem stewardship in the Anthropocene. Drawing from microbial ecology, evolutionary theory, and sustainability science, we argue that cooperation, rather than competition, is a robust and scalable strategy for resilience across biological and institutional systems. In particular, microbial behaviors such as biofilm formation, quorum sensing, and horizontal gene transfer are especially pronounced in extreme environments, where cooperation becomes essential for survival. These strategies serve as functional analogues that illuminate the structural logics of resilience: interdependence, redundancy, distributed coordination, and adaptation. As the Anthropocene progresses toward increasingly extreme conditions, including potential “Hothouse Earth” scenarios driven by climate disruption, such ecological heuristics offer concrete insights into how human institutions can adapt to stress and uncertainty. Rather than reiterating familiar calls for hybrid governance, we use microbial cooperation as a heuristic to reveal the functional architecture already present in many resilient governance practices. These microbial strategies emerging from life in extreme environments demonstrate how interdependence, redundancy, and distributed coordination can create system resilience and sustainability in the long run. By translating microbial survival strategies into institutional design principles, this framework reframes ecosystem stewardship not as a normative ideal, but as an ecological imperative grounded in the evolutionary logic of cooperation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social Ecology and Sustainability)

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13 pages, 662 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Significant Reduction in the Impact of Oil Spills and Chronic Oil Pollution on Seabirds: A Long-Term Case Study from the Gulf of Gdańsk, Southern Baltic Sea

by Włodzimierz Meissner

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 8037; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178037 - 6 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1870

Abstract

The marine environment has long been affected by chronic operational oil pollution, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of seabirds. In many countries Beached Bird Survey programmes have been established, in which dead birds with oil-contaminated plumage are counted along shorelines. [...] Read more.

The marine environment has long been affected by chronic operational oil pollution, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of seabirds. In many countries Beached Bird Survey programmes have been established, in which dead birds with oil-contaminated plumage are counted along shorelines. This study analyses data from Beached Bird Surveys conducted in the western Gulf of Gdańsk (southern Baltic Sea) between 1965/66 and 2024/25 to assess long-term trends in oil pollution. Over a total of 55 seasons, 12,264 dead birds representing 49 different species were recorded, of which 2748 individuals (22%) had oiled plumage. The oil rate was very high up to the 1977/78 season, ranging from 58% to 95%. During that period, the highest densities of oiled birds were also recorded, with values exceeding 20 individuals. A significant decline in the number of oiled birds occurred in the early 1980s, and, apart from two anomalous seasons in the mid-1990s, numbers have remained low since then. This sharp drop coincides with the enforcement of MARPOL regulations and the introduction of regular aerial surveillance to detect oil spills and identify violators. The resulting reduction in ship-based pollution has supported more sustainable use of this ecologically important marine region. The findings highlight the effectiveness of international regulations and monitoring efforts in reducing chronic oil pollution and improving the health of the Baltic Sea ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pollution Prevention, Mitigation and Sustainability)

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22 pages, 2425 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Pollution and Sustainable Uses of Indigene Absorbents for Spill Removal from the Environment—A Review

by Daniel Arghiropol, Tiberiu Rusu, Marioara Moldovan, Gertrud-Alexandra Paltinean, Laura Silaghi-Dumitrescu, Codruta Sarosi and Ioan Petean

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 8018; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178018 - 5 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3155

Abstract

Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution is a serious environmental and human health problem. In recent decades, the impact of this substance has been profound and persistent, affecting the balance of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and leading to significant physical and psychosocial effects among the population. [...] Read more.

Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution is a serious environmental and human health problem. In recent decades, the impact of this substance has been profound and persistent, affecting the balance of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and leading to significant physical and psychosocial effects among the population. Natural sources (crude oil, natural gas, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions) and anthropogenic (road traffic, smoking, pesticide use, oil drilling, underground water leaks, improper oil spills, industrial and mining waste water washing, etc.), the molar weight of the hydrocarbon, and the physicochemical properties are important factors in determining the degree of pollution. The effects of pollution on the environment consist of altering the fundamental structures for sustaining life (infertile lands, climate change, and loss of biodiversity). In terms of human health, diseases of the following systems occur: respiratory (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular (stroke, heart attack), pulmonary (infections, cancer), and premature death. To reduce contamination, sustainable intervention must be carried out in the early stages of the pollution-control process. These include physical techniques (isolation, soil vapor extraction, solvent extraction, soil washing), chemical techniques (dispersants–surfactants, chemical oxidation, solidification/stabilization, thermal desorption), biological techniques (bioremediation, phytoremediation), and indigenous absorbents (peat, straw, wood sawdust, natural zeolites, clays, hemp fibers, granular slag, Adabline II OS). Due to the significant environmental consequences, decisions regarding the treatment of contaminated sites should be made by environmental experts, who must consider factors such as treatment costs, environmental protection regulations, resource recovery, and social implications. Public awareness is also crucial, as citizens need to understand the severity of the issue. They must address the sources of pollution to develop sustainable solutions for ecosystem decontamination. By protecting the environment, we are also safeguarding human nature. Full article

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21 pages, 1981 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Risks and Challenges in CO₂ Capture, Use, Transportation, and Storage

by D. Nathan Meehan

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 7871; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177871 - 1 Sep 2025

Viewed by 4447

Abstract

Reaching net-zero greenhouse gas emissions will require broad deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS), yet significant challenges remain. This paper reviews the main barriers that may hinder or delay widespread CCS adoption, drawing on current projects in various stages of planning, construction, [...] Read more.

Reaching net-zero greenhouse gas emissions will require broad deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS), yet significant challenges remain. This paper reviews the main barriers that may hinder or delay widespread CCS adoption, drawing on current projects in various stages of planning, construction, and development. The discussion focuses on technical, economic, social, and regulatory aspects of CCS and identifies several key obstacles. These include the high financial burden on energy production, persistent uncertainties about the long-term behavior of stored CO₂, and the complexity of the regulatory framework governing CCS projects and CO₂ pipelines. Carbon capture, use, and storage (CCUS) remains a major focus of attention in the petroleum industry due to its potential to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or prevent future emissions. Despite this potential, challenges and risks continue to limit progress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Sustainability)

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28 pages, 2204 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Torrefaction of Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Pathway to Renewable Energy, Circular Economy, and Sustainable Agriculture

by Salini Chandrasekharan Nair, Vineetha John, Renu Geetha Bai and Timo Kikas

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 7738; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177738 - 28 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3827

Abstract

Torrefaction, a mild thermochemical pretreatment process, is widely acknowledged as an effective strategy for enhancing the energy potential of lignocellulosic biomass. This review systematically evaluates the technological, environmental, and economic dimensions of lignocellulosic biomass torrefaction with the objective of clarifying its critical role [...] Read more.

Torrefaction, a mild thermochemical pretreatment process, is widely acknowledged as an effective strategy for enhancing the energy potential of lignocellulosic biomass. This review systematically evaluates the technological, environmental, and economic dimensions of lignocellulosic biomass torrefaction with the objective of clarifying its critical role in sustainable energy production and circular economy frameworks. Drawing from recent literature, the review covers process fundamentals, feedstock characteristics and operational parameters—typically 200–300 °C, heating rates below 50 °C per minute, ~1 h residence time, and oxygen-deficient conditions. The impacts of torrefaction on fuel properties, such as increased energy density, improved grindability and pelletability, enhanced storage stability, and reduced microbial degradation are critically assessed along with its contribution to waste valorization and renewable energy conversion. Particular emphasis is placed on the application of torrefied biomass (biochar) in sustainable agriculture, where it can enhance nutrient retention, improve soil quality and promote long-term carbon sequestration. This review identifies an unresolved research gap in aligning large-scale techno-economic feasibility with environmental impacts, specifically concerning the high process energy requirements, emission mitigation and regulatory integration. Process optimization, reactor design and supportive policy frameworks are identified as key strategies that could significantly improve the economic viability and sustainability outcomes. Overall, torrefaction demonstrates substantial potential as a scalable pathway for converting waste agricultural and forest residues into carbon-neutral biofuels. By effectively linking biomass waste valorization with renewable energy production and sustainable agricultural practices, this review offers a practical route to reducing environmental impacts while supporting the broader objectives of the global circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Valorization of Biomass for Clean Energy and High-Value Products)

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12 pages, 754 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceOpinion

Tropical Cyclones and Coral Reefs Under a Changing Climate: Prospects and Likely Synergies Between Future High-Energy Storms and Other Acute and Chronic Coral Reef Stressors

by Stephen M. Turton

Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 7651; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177651 - 25 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3109

Abstract

Shallow warm-water coral reefs are among the most biodiverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth, supporting a quarter of all marine life and delivering critical ecosystem services such as coastal protection, food security, and economic benefits through tourism and fisheries. However, these ecosystems are [...] Read more.

Shallow warm-water coral reefs are among the most biodiverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth, supporting a quarter of all marine life and delivering critical ecosystem services such as coastal protection, food security, and economic benefits through tourism and fisheries. However, these ecosystems are under escalating threat from anthropogenic climate change, with tropical cyclones representing their most significant high-energy storm disturbances. Approximately 70% of the world’s coral reefs lie within the tropical cyclone belt, where the frequency, intensity, and rainfall associated with tropical cyclones are changing due to global warming. Coral reefs already compromised by climate-induced stressors—such as marine heatwaves, ocean acidification, and sea-level rise—are increasingly vulnerable to the compounding impacts of more intense and slower-moving cyclones. Projected changes in cyclone behaviour, including regional variations in storm intensity and rainfall, may further undermine coral reef resilience, pushing many reef systems toward irreversible degradation. Future impacts will be regionally variable but increasingly severe without immediate climate mitigation. Building reef resilience will require a combination of rapid global carbon emission reductions and ambitious adaptation strategies, including enhanced reef management and restoration and conservation efforts. The long-term survival of coral reefs now hinges on coordinated global action and support for reef-dependent communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Science and Management Approaches to Support Coral Reefs in a Time of Rapid Climate Change)

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32 pages, 5858 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Geopolymer Materials: Cutting-Edge Solutions for Sustainable Design Building

by Laura Ricciotti, Caterina Frettoloso, Rossella Franchino, Nicola Pisacane and Raffaella Aversa

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7483; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167483 - 19 Aug 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5905

Abstract

The development of innovative and environmentally sustainable construction materials is a strategic priority in the context of the ecological transition and circular economy. Geopolymers and alkali-activated materials, derived from industrial and construction waste rich in aluminosilicates, are gaining increasing attention as low-carbon alternatives [...] Read more.

The development of innovative and environmentally sustainable construction materials is a strategic priority in the context of the ecological transition and circular economy. Geopolymers and alkali-activated materials, derived from industrial and construction waste rich in aluminosilicates, are gaining increasing attention as low-carbon alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which remains one of the main contributors to anthropogenic CO₂ emissions and landfill-bound construction waste. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of geopolymer-based solutions for building and architectural applications, with a particular focus on modular multilayer panels. Key aspects, such as chemical formulation, mechanical and thermal performance, durability, technological compatibility, and architectural flexibility, are critically examined. The discussion integrates considerations of disassemblability, reusability, and end-of-life scenarios, adopting a life cycle perspective to assess the circular potential of geopolymer building systems. Advanced fabrication strategies, including 3D printing and fibre reinforcement, are evaluated for their contribution to performance enhancement and material customisation. In parallel, the use of parametric modelling and digital tools such as building information modelling (BIM) coupled with life cycle assessment (LCA) enables holistic performance monitoring and optimisation throughout the design and construction process. The review also explores the emerging application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning for predictive mix design and material property forecasting, identifying key trends and limitations in current research. Representative quantitative indicators demonstrate the performance and environmental potential of geopolymer systems: compressive strengths typically range from 30 to 80 MPa, with thermal conductivity values as low as 0.08–0.18 W/m·K for insulating panels. Life cycle assessments report 40–60% reductions in CO₂ emissions compared with OPC-based systems, underscoring their contribution to climate-neutral construction. Although significant progress has been made, challenges remain in terms of long-term durability, standardisation, data availability, and regulatory acceptance. Future perspectives are outlined, emphasising the need for interdisciplinary collaboration, digital integration, and performance-based codes to support the full deployment of geopolymer technologies in sustainable building and architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Net Zero Carbon Building and Sustainable Built Environment)

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34 pages, 4350 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials in Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes

by Krzysztof Piaskowski, Renata Świderska-Dąbrowska and Tomasz Dąbrowski

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7414; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167414 - 16 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1870

Abstract

The observed increase in the diversity and level of pollutant content in the water environment forces the development of more effective technologies for their removal. Using nanomaterials in water and wastewater treatment offers numerous opportunities to remove organic and inorganic contaminants that are [...] Read more.

The observed increase in the diversity and level of pollutant content in the water environment forces the development of more effective technologies for their removal. Using nanomaterials in water and wastewater treatment offers numerous opportunities to remove organic and inorganic contaminants that are hardly removable in conventional processes. In this group, carbon-based nanomaterials, mainly carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene (Gr), and graphene oxide (GO), are very popular. This review aims to present the directions and diversity of applications of carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs) in water and wastewater technology, as well as the challenges and environmental dangers that new solutions entail. Authors also present the results of the research on the changes in properties of GO produced in the laboratory as water suspension and a freeze-dried product over time. The results confirm the significant influence of the form of graphene oxide and its storage time on the structural properties, hydrophilicity, and stability of GO. Therefore, they should be considered when selecting an adsorbent or reaction catalyst in environmental applications for developing new greener and sustainable methods of treatment and purification, which use fewer reagents and release safer products. Full article

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25 pages, 2308 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Socio-Economic Benefits of Different Indonesian Crops: Opportunities for Sago Starch in Bioplastic Development

by Ida Bagus Gede Sutawijaya, Aritta Suwarno and Lars Hein

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7351; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167351 - 14 Aug 2025

Viewed by 2316

Abstract

The growing global demand for bioplastics highlights the need for sustainable starch sources, and Indonesia has considerable potential for cultivating such feedstock. While cassava has been widely promoted, there is limited scientific justification for prioritizing it over alternatives such as sago. An important [...] Read more.

The growing global demand for bioplastics highlights the need for sustainable starch sources, and Indonesia has considerable potential for cultivating such feedstock. While cassava has been widely promoted, there is limited scientific justification for prioritizing it over alternatives such as sago. An important distinction is that cassava is grown on mineral soils, where many alternative crops are viable, whereas sago is cultivated on peatlands, where relatively few crops can be grown sustainably. This study compares the socio-economic benefits of cassava and sago, considering their competitiveness against their main competing crops (i.e., corn on mineral soils and oil palm on peatlands). For new plantations, sago generated lower farm-level benefits than cassava, with net present values of 1534 EUR/ha and 5719 EUR/ha, respectively. However, when integrating starch processing and environmental impacts, sago provided greater benefits than cassava (4166 EUR/ha vs. 3555 EUR/ha). In the long term, sago may become more profitable than cassava due to its low maintenance and lack of replanting needs. Additionally, sago offers broader societal and environmental advantages, as it thrives on undrained peatlands, for which few alternatives exist. This study concludes that sago, as a paludiculture crop, is a sustainable option for bioplastic feedstock and can support peatland restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Resources and Sustainable Utilization)

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21 pages, 980 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils Using Phosphate-Enriched Sewage Sludge Biochar

by Protogene Mbasabire, Yves Theoneste Murindangabo, Jakub Brom, Protegene Byukusenge, Jean de Dieu Marcel Ufitikirezi, Josine Uwihanganye, Sandra Nicole Umurungi, Marie Grace Ntezimana, Karim Karimunda and Roger Bwimba

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7345; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167345 - 14 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3513

Abstract

Heavy metals represent long-lasting contaminants that pose significant risks to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Originating from both natural and anthropogenic activities, they bioaccumulate in organisms through the food web, leading to widespread and long-lasting contamination. Industrialization, agriculture, and urbanization have exacerbated [...] Read more.

Heavy metals represent long-lasting contaminants that pose significant risks to both human health and ecosystem integrity. Originating from both natural and anthropogenic activities, they bioaccumulate in organisms through the food web, leading to widespread and long-lasting contamination. Industrialization, agriculture, and urbanization have exacerbated soil and water contamination through activities such as mining, industrial production, and wastewater use. In response to this challenge, biochar produced from waste materials such as sewage sludge has emerged as a promising remediation strategy, offering a cost-effective and sustainable means to immobilize heavy metals and reduce their bioavailability in contaminated environments. Here we explore the potential of phosphate-enriched biochar, derived from sewage sludge, to adsorb and stabilize heavy metals in polluted soils. Sewage sludge was pyrolyzed at various temperatures to produce biochar. A soil incubation experiment was conducted by adding phosphate-amended biochar to contaminated soil and maintaining it for one month. Heavy metals were extracted using a CaCl₂ extraction method and analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Results demonstrated that phosphate amendment significantly enhanced the biochar’s capacity to immobilize heavy metals. Amending soils with 2.5 wt% phosphate-enriched sewage sludge biochar led to reductions in bioavailable Cd (by 65–82%), Zn (40–75%), and Pb (52–88%) across varying pyrolysis temperatures. Specifically, phosphate-amended biochar reduced the mobility of Cd and Zn more effectively than unamended biochar, with a significant decrease in their concentrations in soil extracts. For Cu and Pb, the effectiveness varied with pyrolysis temperature and phosphate amendment, highlighting the importance of optimization for specific metal contaminants. Biochar generated from elevated pyrolysis temperatures (500 °C) showed an increase in ash content and pH, which improved their ability to retain heavy metals and limit their mobility. These findings suggest that phosphate-amended biochar reduces heavy metal bioavailability, minimizing their entry into the food chain. This supports a sustainable approach for managing hazardous waste and remediating contaminated soils, safeguarding ecosystem health, and mitigating public health risks. Full article

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19 pages, 1124 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing the Potential Agronomic Value of Spent Mushroom Substrates: Evaluating Their Suitability to Contribute to Soil Carbon Storage

by María R. Yagüe, José A. González-Pérez, Gonzalo Almendros and M. Carmen Lobo

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7335; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167335 - 14 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1904

Abstract

The EU’s Circular Economy Action Plan promotes the use of organic waste as fertilizer, thus allowing the recycling of nutrients in the agricultural system. Research on the agronomic reuse of composted substrates previously employed for mushroom cultivation remains limited, despite their rich content [...] Read more.

The EU’s Circular Economy Action Plan promotes the use of organic waste as fertilizer, thus allowing the recycling of nutrients in the agricultural system. Research on the agronomic reuse of composted substrates previously employed for mushroom cultivation remains limited, despite their rich content of plant residues and fungal biomass, which could be repurposed as soil amendments under suitable conditions. This study evaluated the agronomic potential of spent mushroom substrates from Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus, including recomposted A. bisporus residues. A range of analytical procedures was employed to assess their suitability for soil improvement and the formation of humic-like substances, including physical, chemical, microbiological, phytotoxicity, and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analyses. The spent Pleurotus substrate exhibited low nutrient content (1.1% N, negligible P, 0.9% K), but high water retention (820 kg water Mg⁻¹) and 48% organic carbon (OC), indicating its potential as a soil amendment or seedling substrate. In contrast, spent and composted Agaricus substrates showed moderate nutrient content (1.8–2.7% N; 0.8–0.7% P and 1.3–1.8% K), appropriate C/N ratios (10–15), and sufficient OC levels (24–30%), supporting their use as fertilizers. However, elevated salinity levels (18–23 dS m⁻¹) may restrict their application for salt-sensitive crops. No significant phytotoxic effects on seed germination were observed, and microbiological analyses confirmed the absence of Salmonella spp. in the three substrates. Py-GC/MS revealed a humic acid-like fraction comprising altered lignin structures enriched with lipid and nitrogen compounds. Overall, the studied materials demonstrate promising agronomic value and the capacity to contribute to long-term soil carbon storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Resources and Sustainable Utilization)

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32 pages, 663 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Unraveling the Microbiome–Environmental Change Nexus to Contribute to a More Sustainable World: A Comprehensive Review of Artificial Intelligence Approaches

by Maria Inês Barbosa, Gabriel Silva, Pedro Ribeiro, Eduarda Vieira, André Perrotta, Patrícia Moreira and Pedro Miguel Rodrigues

Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7209; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167209 - 9 Aug 2025

Viewed by 2198

Abstract

This review aims to explore the literature to assess the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in environmental monitoring for predicting microbiome dynamics. Recognizing the significance of comprehending microorganism diversity, composition, and ecologically sustainable impact, the review emphasizes the importance of studying how microbiomes [...] Read more.

This review aims to explore the literature to assess the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in environmental monitoring for predicting microbiome dynamics. Recognizing the significance of comprehending microorganism diversity, composition, and ecologically sustainable impact, the review emphasizes the importance of studying how microbiomes respond to environmental changes to better grasp ecosystem dynamics. This bibliographic search examines how AI (Machine Learning and Deep Learning) approaches are employed to predict changes in microbial diversity and community composition in response to environmental and climate variables, as well as how shifts in the microbiome can, in turn, influence the environment. Our research identified a final sample of 50 papers that highlighted a prevailing concern for aquatic and terrestrial environments, particularly regarding soil health, productivity, and water contamination, and the use of specific microbial markers for detection rather than shotgun metagenomics. The integration of AI in environmental microbiome monitoring directly supports key sustainability goals through optimized resource management, enhanced bioremediation approaches, and early detection of ecosystem disturbances. This study investigates the challenges associated with interpreting the outputs of these algorithms and emphasizes the need for a deeper understanding of microbial physiology and ecological contexts. The study highlights the advantages and disadvantages of different AI methods for predicting environmental microbiomes through a critical review of relevant research publications. Furthermore, it outlines future directions, including exploring uncharted territories and enhancing model interpretability. Full article

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33 pages, 8443 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Model for Planning and Optimization of Train Crew Rosters for Sustainable Railway Transport

by Zdenka Bulková, Juraj Čamaj and Jozef Gašparík

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7069; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157069 - 4 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2479

Abstract

Efficient planning of train crew rosters is a key factor in ensuring operational reliability and promoting long-term sustainability in railway transport, both economically and socially. This article presents a systematic approach to developing a crew rostering model in passenger rail transport, with a [...] Read more.

Efficient planning of train crew rosters is a key factor in ensuring operational reliability and promoting long-term sustainability in railway transport, both economically and socially. This article presents a systematic approach to developing a crew rostering model in passenger rail transport, with a focus on the operational setting of the train crew depot in Česká Třebová, a city in the Czech Republic. The seven-step methodology includes identifying available train shifts, defining scheduling constraints, creating roster variants, and calculating personnel and time requirements for each option. The proposed roster reduced staffing needs by two employees, increased the average shift duration to 9 h and 42 min, and decreased non-productive time by 384 h annually. These improvements enhance sustainability by optimizing human resource use, lowering unnecessary energy consumption, and improving employees’ work–life balance. The model also provides a quantitative assessment of operational feasibility and economic efficiency. Compared to existing rosters, the proposed model offers clear advantages and remains applicable even in settings with limited technological support. The findings show that a well-designed rostering system can contribute not only to cost savings and personnel stabilization, but also to broader objectives in sustainable public transport, supporting resilient and resource-efficient rail operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploratory Railway Track Structure, Railway Operation and Transport in Sustainable Development of Railway Systems)

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25 pages, 6464 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Eco-Friendly Sandwich Panels for Energy-Efficient Façades

by Susana P. B. Sousa, Helena C. Teixeira, Giorgia Autretto, Valeria Villamil Cárdenas, Stefano Fantucci, Fabio Favoino, Pamela Voigt, Mario Stelzmann, Robert Böhm, Gabriel Beltrán, Nicolás Escribano, Belén Hernández-Gascón, Matthias Tietze and Andreia Araújo

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6848; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156848 - 28 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2217

Abstract

To meet the European Green Deal targets, the construction sector must improve building thermal performance via advanced insulation systems. Eco-friendly sandwich panels offer a promising solution. Therefore, this work aims to develop and validate a new eco-friendly composite sandwich panel (basalt fibres and [...] Read more.

To meet the European Green Deal targets, the construction sector must improve building thermal performance via advanced insulation systems. Eco-friendly sandwich panels offer a promising solution. Therefore, this work aims to develop and validate a new eco-friendly composite sandwich panel (basalt fibres and recycled extruded polystyrene) with enhanced multifunctionality for lightweight and energy-efficient building façades. Two panels were produced via vacuum infusion—a reference panel and a multifunctional panel incorporating phase change materials (PCMs) and silica aerogels (AGs). Their performance was evaluated through lab-based thermal and acoustic tests, numerical simulations, and on-site monitoring in a living laboratory. The test results from all methods were consistent. The PCM-AG panel showed 16% lower periodic thermal transmittance (0.16 W/(m²K) vs. 0.19 W/(m²K)) and a 92% longer time shift (4.26 h vs. 2.22 h), indicating improved thermal inertia. It also achieved a single-number sound insulation rating of 38 dB. These findings confirm the panel’s potential to reduce operational energy demand and support long-term climate goals. Full article

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20 pages, 892 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Generator-Side Charges on Investment in Power Generation and Transmission Under Demand Uncertainty

by Hirotaka Hiraiwa, Kazuya Ito and Ryuta Takashima

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6824; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156824 - 27 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1261

Abstract

Given the increases in renewable energy penetration, appropriately allocating transmission costs is important in generation and transmission investment decisions. This study examines how a generator-side transmission charge affects investment decisions by power generation companies (PC) and the transmission system operator (TSO) under two [...] Read more.

Given the increases in renewable energy penetration, appropriately allocating transmission costs is important in generation and transmission investment decisions. This study examines how a generator-side transmission charge affects investment decisions by power generation companies (PC) and the transmission system operator (TSO) under two frameworks differing in who decides investment timing. We compare two frameworks: (1) TSO determines investment timing and the PC determines capacity (TL framework); (2) PC determines investment timing and capacity (GL framework). We examine how variations in generator-side charges and demand uncertainty affect the optimal investment timing, capacity, and social surplus. Regarding investment timing, increases in the generator-side charge led to earlier investment in the TL framework but delayed investment in the GL framework. Concerning investment capacity, the TL framework yielded greater capacity with low uncertainty, while the GL framework supported greater capacity with high uncertainty. The magnitude of the relative social surplus of the two frameworks was reversed according to the generator-side charge and uncertainty. Specifically, the GL framework became increasingly superior to the TL framework as uncertainty increased, and this advantage was amplified by a higher generator-side charge. Policymakers should consider uncertainty and calibrate the level of generator-side charge and the allocation of decision-making authority. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Energy System: Efficiency and Cost of Renewable Energy)

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15 pages, 2865 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mitigation of Alkali–Silica Reactivity of Greywacke Aggregate in Concrete for Sustainable Pavements

by Kinga Dziedzic, Aneta Brachaczek, Dominik Nowicki and Michał A. Glinicki

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6825; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156825 - 27 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1170

Abstract

Quality requirements for mineral aggregate for concrete used to construct pavement for busy highways are high because of the fatigue traffic loads and environmental exposure. The use of local aggregate for infrastructure projects could result in important sustainability improvements, provided that the concrete’s [...] Read more.

Quality requirements for mineral aggregate for concrete used to construct pavement for busy highways are high because of the fatigue traffic loads and environmental exposure. The use of local aggregate for infrastructure projects could result in important sustainability improvements, provided that the concrete’s durability is assured. The objective of this study was to identify the potential alkaline reactivity of local greywacke aggregate and select appropriate mitigation measures against the alkali–silica reaction. Experimental tests on concrete specimens were performed using the miniature concrete prism test at 60 °C. Mixtures of coarse greywacke aggregate up to 12.5 mm with natural fine aggregate of different potential reactivity were evaluated in respect to the expansion, compressive strength, and elastic modulus of the concrete. Two preventive measures were studied—the use of metakaolin and slag-blended cement. A moderate reactivity potential of the greywacke aggregate was found, and the influence of reactive quartz sand on the expansion and instability of the mechanical properties of concrete was evaluated. Both crystalline and amorphous alkali–silica reaction products were detected in the cracks of the greywacke aggregate. Efficient expansion mitigation was obtained for the replacement of 15% of Portland cement by metakaolin or the use of CEM III/A cement with the slag content of 52%, even if greywacke aggregate was blended with moderately reactive quartz sand. It resulted in a relative reduction in expansion by 85–96%. The elastic modulus deterioration was less than 10%, confirming an increased stability of the elastic properties of concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability of Pavement Engineering and Road Materials)

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26 pages, 3167 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Global Population, Carrying Capacity, and High-Quality, High-Pressure Processed Foods in the Industrial Revolution Era

by Agata Angelika Sojecka, Aleksandra Drozd-Rzoska and Sylwester J. Rzoska

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6827; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156827 - 27 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The report examines food availability and demand in the Anthropocene era, exploring the connections between global population growth and carrying capacity through an extended version of Cohen’s Condorcet concept. It recalls the super-Malthus and Verhulst-type scalings, matched with the recently introduced analytic relative [...] Read more.

The report examines food availability and demand in the Anthropocene era, exploring the connections between global population growth and carrying capacity through an extended version of Cohen’s Condorcet concept. It recalls the super-Malthus and Verhulst-type scalings, matched with the recently introduced analytic relative growth rate. It focuses particularly on the ongoing Fifth Industrial Revolution (IR) and its interaction with the concept of a sustainable civilization. In this context, the significance of innovative food preservation technologies that can yield high-quality foods with health-promoting features, while simultaneously increasing food quantities and reducing adverse environmental impacts, is discussed. To achieve this, high-pressure preservation and processing (HPP) can play a dominant role. High-pressure ‘cold pasteurization’, related to room-temperature processing, has already achieved a global scale. Its superior features are notable and are fairly correlated with social expectations of a sustainable society and the technological tasks of the Fifth Industrial Revolution. The discussion is based on the authors’ experiences in HPP-related research and applications. The next breakthrough could be HPP-related sterilization. The innovative HPP path, supported by the colossal barocaloric effect, is presented. The mass implementation of pressure-related sterilization could lead to milestone societal, pro-health, environmental, and economic benefits. Full article

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Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Environmental Impacts of Façade Renovation: A Case Study of an Office Building

by Patrik Štompf, Rozália Vaňová and Stanislav Jochim

Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6766; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156766 - 25 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Renovating existing buildings is a key strategy for achieving the EU’s climate targets, as over 75% of the current building stock is energy inefficient. This study evaluates the environmental impacts of three façade renovation scenarios for an office building at the Technical University [...] Read more.

Renovating existing buildings is a key strategy for achieving the EU’s climate targets, as over 75% of the current building stock is energy inefficient. This study evaluates the environmental impacts of three façade renovation scenarios for an office building at the Technical University in Zvolen (Slovakia) using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. The aim is to quantify and compare these impacts based on material selection and its influence on sustainable construction. The analysis focuses on key environmental indicators, including global warming potential (GWP), abiotic depletion (ADE, ADF), ozone depletion (ODP), toxicity, acidification (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), and primary energy use (PERT, PENRT). The scenarios vary in the use of insulation materials (glass wool, wood fibre, mineral wool), façade finishes (cladding vs. render), and window types (aluminium vs. wood–aluminium). Uncertainty analysis identified GWP, AP, and ODP as robust decision-making categories, while toxicity-related results showed lower reliability. To support integrated and transparent comparison, a composite environmental index (CEI) was developed, aggregating characterisation, normalisation, and mass-based results into a single score. Scenario C–2, featuring an ETICS system with mineral wool insulation and wood–aluminium windows, achieved the lowest environmental impact across all categories. In contrast, scenarios with traditional cladding and aluminium windows showed significantly higher impacts, particularly in fossil fuel use and ecotoxicity. The findings underscore the decisive role of material selection in sustainable renovation and the need for a multi-criteria, context-sensitive approach aligned with architectural, functional, and regional priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Architecture, Structural Design, and Environmental Engineering)

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