Pedagogical Approaches to Responsible Entrepreneurship Education

Abstract

This article explores innovations in and pedagogical approaches to Responsible Entrepreneurship Education (REE), with a specific focus on how to advance responsible entrepreneurial competencies (“know-how”) and entrepreneurial practices (“know-that”). Consequently, this article proposes the “4Rs” framework (re-imagining, reconfiguring, reshaping, and reforming) to guide entrepreneurship educators’ actions. Firstly, it is necessary to “re-imagine” the intended and enacted curriculum to develop a contemporary awareness and knowledge of social and environmental enterprises. Secondly, it is essential to “reconfigure” teaching pedagogies to problematize the entrepreneurship environment and outer world. Thirdly, it is required for educators to “reshape” the attained curriculum with the stakeholders to offer learners co-curricular and extracurricular experiences. Finally, pedagogical “reforms” provide an opportunity to incorporate innovations into the discovery of new knowledge and paths of responsibilities. These pedagogical approaches support entrepreneurial learning as “processes” and entrepreneurship as a “process” aligned to the achievement of responsible entrepreneurial behavior.

1. Introduction

Innovation is required to develop effective entrepreneurship education (EE) in the higher education system. EE consists of any pedagogical [programme] or process of education for entrepreneurial competencies and skills [1], p.702. Furthermore, any activity that involves the discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities for new venture creation is regarded as entrepreneurship [2]. Another category, Intrapreneurship describes the application of an enterprise’s behavior, attributes and skills within corporate or public-sector organizations [3]. EE supports these processes [4]. Because the previous research on EE failed to adequately address how EE innovation can be adapted to respond to social and environmental challenges, this article develops a proposition on re-imagining and reconfiguring the design of the EE curriculum and teaching pedagogy that advances entrepreneurial behavior within the scope of responsible principles (economic, social and environmental innovations).

EE is considered a medium for preparing citizens to develop the knowledge, competencies and skills that promote an inclusive society, employment opportunities, well-being and social responsibility. Embedded in EE is the entrepreneurial competence necessary for successful employment and a fulfilling career [5,6]. Previous scholars described EE and learning as “processes” and entrepreneurship as a “process” that can be achieved through action learning, training and practice [7]. EE focuses on facilitating competencies and skills through adaptative “learning in the curriculum” and “learning beyond the curriculum” [3]. EE is conceptualized as a means that motivates intentions, thoughts, persistence and behavior [8].

This study makes several contributions to knowledge—especially on how EE could foster more responsible entrepreneurs and positively impact society. Several models propose a learning-by-doing approach, however, learning-by-doing-what needs to be further addressed [9]. Conceptually, this article critically tackles current EE approaches. There is a failure of traditional educational approaches to prepare graduates to act responsibly [10]. To overcome some of these challenges, international organizations such as the British Council designed the Innovation for African Universities (IAU) programme to explore ways of improving EE. Although developing entrepreneurship-relevant competencies and skills is the major goal of EE [11], it is vital also to focus on facilitating social entrepreneurship (SE) and environmental entrepreneurship [12].

This study is framed against the backdrop of a conceptual approach, integrating sustainable EE with social and environmental outcomes. The conceptual method has become a powerful means of creating new knowledge through theory building, theory adaptation, typology and building models [13]. It examines the aim and objectives of EE. How EE can focus on developing entrepreneurial mindsets, competencies and skills has become a major concern. There has been debate on whether the focus of education policy should be on vocational or core education [14]. Furthermore, this article develops the context of EE and discusses for whom EE is intended and what the expected outcomes of EE should be, including the underlying social responsibilities of EE.

First, the article reviews the theoretical and philosophical notions of EE. This is followed by critiques of entrepreneurship and management education. Next, the study explores the principles related to the achievement of sustainable EE and Principles of Responsible Management Education (PRME) [15]. This is followed by a radical approach to social and environmental entrepreneurial discovery, curriculum design and a pedagogical reforms framework to guide instructors’ actions. Finally, the article concludes with a reflection on the values of Responsible Entrepreneurship Education (REE), together with the missing links, conclusion and implications.

2. Philosophical Foundations and Entrepreneurship Education

Globally, EE has turned out to be one of the fastest-growing fields of knowledge directed toward enhancing entrepreneurial intentions and employability skills [16,17] using several pedagogical methods (traditional learning or experiential learning) [18]. Therefore, entrepreneurship is a process (Figure 1) that is learnable and achievable [19]. This can be described as the model of the “knowledge acquisition” process [20]. The entrepreneurship process can be broadly divided into two phases. Phase 1 represents the learning process of “know-how”. Phase 2 represents the “practice process” (“know that” or the application of ideas) that leads to problem solving and value creation.

Figure 1 reveals that Phase 1 (Learning) starts with awareness, analyzing and evaluating opportunities and making discoveries through formal or informal learning. Formal learning takes the form of EE and a work-based environment, while informal learning develops through a family or social orientation. Phase 2 (Practice, “know-that”) involves problem solving, leadership, responsibility and value creation, and combines creativity, idea generation, problem identification, innovation and practical action.

Entrepreneurship as a “Process model” represents the sequence of knowledge exploration, application and evaluation that takes place in EE (either formal or informal education). However, it has been argued that the way in which EE is practiced is ineffective [21,22]. Another argument is that EE has traditionally been taught from a business administration perspective, where predicting the future is central and the world is seen as linear, whereas real-world entrepreneurship develops in a highly uncertain environment [9]. In most cases, EE tells stories of characteristics and successes but fails to take on the challenge [22]. Another critique of EE is that educators often fail to adequately discuss entrepreneurial failure [11]. Therefore, several propositions and concerns about EE abound.

First, it is never clear what the aims and objectives of Entrepreneurship Education are. Entrepreneurship has been taught for over 60 years in business schools, engineering schools and universities [23]. EE encompasses “developing the mindset, skillset, and practice, necessary for starting new ventures” [24], p. 10. The two most frequently used terms are EE and enterprise education. While enterprise education is primarily used in learning environments focusing more broadly on personal development, mindset, skills and abilities, EE focuses more on the specific context of setting up a venture and becoming self-employed [25]. Therefore, EE includes all of the formal programs and training intended to develop learners’ competencies and skills [11]. The goal of EE is to change mindsets and create innovative, risk-taking behavior [17] in order to contribute to lifelong learning [26]. This is critical for graduate entrepreneurial career making, thereby achieving sustainable value for business and society [27,28].

The second proposition is for whom is EE and learning intended? EE focuses on developing all categories of learners’ creativity, competencies, skills and entrepreneurial behavior. However, there is a black box and different interpretations of entrepreneurship [21,29]. These lead to considerable confusion [21]. There are distinctions between the definitions of enterprise and entrepreneurship education and also significant overlap in the manner in which they are designed and delivered [30]. Many studies take a pedagogical approach to defining EE [1,26,31]. Therefore, EE is critical to individual cognition, thoughts and actions. It is expected that the process will enhance the learner’s ability to identify opportunities, analyze the environment and make responsible decisions [32]. The resonance with entrepreneurial studies is obvious.

The third vagueness is the lack of underlying social responsibilities of EE. EE is often built on the foundation of Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (TPB) [33], the entrepreneurial event model [34], Bandura’s [35] social learning theory and Dyer’s [36] model of entrepreneurial careers. There appears to be too much emphasis on the economic roles of employment and growth, which has resulted in serious debate about its effects [37]. Therefore, EE refers to “the whole set of education and training activities (…) that try to develop in the participants the intention to perform entrepreneurial behaviours, or some of the elements that affect that intention, such as entrepreneurial knowledge, the desirability of the entrepreneurial activity, or its feasibility” [38], p. 163. Furthermore, the discovery and development of opportunities are other popular models applied in EE research that predict actions based on intentions [39], including optimism, self-efficacy and creativity [40]. However, there is a lack of attention to the effects of EE and entrepreneurial career choices or behavior [37].

The fourth ambiguity relates to the expected EE outcomes. There are different opinions concerning what the outcome of EE should be. The label “entrepreneurship” is the source of this problem, and it is suggested that its use should be dropped [21], p. 740. One leans on a rather narrow definition of entrepreneurship, viewed as starting a business [25]. Another lens emphasizes that it is not at all about starting a new business, but rather about making students more creative, opportunity-oriented, proactive and innovative [25]. Additionally, EE is considered a dynamic concept, reflecting personal values, societal changes and cultural differences [23].

It has been argued that the field of entrepreneurship is “concerned with growth and decay; with destruction, with alertness to the differences that might make a difference; with risky ventures that are themselves an adventure, with maturing, animating or transforming; with creativity and disclosing that which is not yet fully known” [19], p. 600. Sustainable education should enable the creation of socially responsible citizens, who take an active role in shaping their future and that of their society through engaging in commercial entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship, digital entrepreneurship and green entrepreneurship [41]. These forms of entrepreneurship focus on the different challenges in society.

3. How Does Entrepreneurship Work in Theory and Practice?

The varying definitions of entrepreneurship and variations in the pedagogical methods make it difficult for EE educators to offer firm advice about how to approach EE [25]. An entrepreneurial intention has been defined as one’s desire to own or start a business [42]. Research on EE has been very popular in recent decades; however, key educational and didactical issues remain [43]. In most cases, entrepreneurial pedagogy (part of management education) is still seen as part of business studies and teaching entrepreneurship often uses business terminology and methods [4].

Arguably, the role of business schools is to be critical of the development of an enterprising mindset and the actions of the younger members of society [44,45]. Some critics of business education have argued that there exist problems related to matters being “lost in translation” [46] and “lost in creativity and innovation thinking” [47]. Furthermore, there is a problem with how EE is designed and delivered, thereby limiting creativity or constraining thinking and innovation. “Lost Before Translation,” relates to the tendency among academics to design studies without input from business managers or employees [46,48].

EE is not commonly related to ethics and the EE policies are not fully regulated [49]. Aladag and Dal [49] defined ethics as referring to individual moral and behavioral habits that determine the essential character of existence, and the rules examine moral principles and values. There are questions about the skill-based approach that is typically adopted during business school courses [50] and the misinformation that management academics give to students in the classroom, which can have damaging consequences, including undermining the students’ well-being and limiting their aspirations [51]. Within these contexts, many argue that the education system is failing to impart useful employability skills, prepare leaders, instil norms of ethical behavior and produce responsible management professionals.

Addressing these challenges presents an opportunity for EE to increase the awareness of training practices and their value [23]. It is unclear how EE contributes towards creating an inclusive society and promoting wellbeing and social responsibility. Educators need to take a more critical stance towards re-thinking (re-imagining) what they teach or how, as well as the pedagogy and impact of EE. For example, there is a need to integrate technological innovations and digital literacy into business management programs [52]. In light of this, it is necessary to re-examine the relationship between EE, entrepreneurial intentions, problem solving and value creation. According to Darics [50], nurturing analytical and critical thinking skills will enable students to understand and challenge when social control, power or injustice is enacted within organizations.

4. Sustainable Entrepreneurship Education

Sustainable entrepreneurship has been defined as “preservation of nature, life support, and community in the pursuit of perceived opportunities to bring into existence future products, processes, and services for gain, where gain is broadly construed to include economic and non-economic gains to individuals, the economy, and society” [53], p. 632. PRME was initiated in 2007 to embed business education and sustainability within the business school curriculum globally [54,55]. PRME focuses on the need to integrate responsible leadership and CSR in teaching and research [55]. The initiative is targeted at developing the capabilities of students to be the future generators of sustainable value for business and society [56].

It has been argued that sustainable entrepreneurship deploys existing resources effectively by not jeopardizing the potential of future generations to access resources [57]. The British Council-IAU program was designed to understand higher education ecosystem needs, societal problems and solutions. Furthermore, PRME defines the relationship between EE and commercial, social, digital and environmental innovation. PRME and the Sustainable Development Goals (17-SDGs) were introduced by the United Nations (UN) as a set of voluntary principles to develop future leaders with the necessary insights into the complex issues facing business and society [58]. More than 13 years after the launch of PRME, the need to address social and environmental sustainability is perhaps becoming even more critical [55].

The UN 17 SDGs and PRME focus on promoting sustainable development. Since its initiation, more than 800 universities in more than 85 countries have joined the PRME initiative [59] and the UN is still encouraging new institutions to sign up to the initiative [60]. PRME extends the application of social responsibility and sustainability into management education, imparting a sense of a moral compass as well as ideas of corporate responsibility and global social responsibility (GSR) [28]. In this context, sustainable education has been categorized into four descriptors [61], p. 63, as follows:

• Sustaining: focuses on sustaining people, communities and ecosystems
• Tenable: issues related to ethics, integrity, justice, respect and inclusiveness
• Healthy: maintaining a viable system and nurturing healthy relationships
• Durable.

PRME highlights the need for management education to develop the capacity of individuals and society to cope with uncertain and complex global challenges through responsible innovations [62]. PRME’s value propositions and principles are dedicated to achieving the SDGs, integrating sustainable development into the curriculum, teaching pedagogy and research [10]. PRME values focus on developing students’ capabilities, social responsibility, and responsible leadership, facilitating stakeholder dialogue, and the achievement of sustainable environmental and economic responsibilities [56].

PRME is aimed at driving change and a fundamental rethinking of management education through questioning and challenging assumptions [28]. Despite the relevance of the PRME initiative, several challenges limit the achievement of its targets. Sustainability is becoming more complex given the global technological and environmental changes that are occurring, such as global warming and artificial intelligence [55]. Although PRME has received significant attention since its inception, questions linger concerning its effectiveness and legitimacy, juxtaposed with strong support by its proponents [45].

EE, at all levels of education, is required to help people advance their knowledge, skills, self-efficacy, self-identity, values, beliefs and needs [3,63]. EE and entrepreneurial role models are regarded as facilitators of entrepreneurial career choices or behavior [37]. One of the questions that scholars and experts ask is how responsible management education can be envisioned [10]. Furthermore, educators find it challenging to embed sustainability into the management curriculum [45]. Critics contend that there must be a much stronger alignment between embedded ethical values and practices [45].

Sustainable education, or transformative learning, has become part of the new sustainability agenda [61]. Hence, entrepreneurship educators are expected to design and deliver effective EE; build collaborative relationships with stakeholders; and motivate and inspire students to develop enterprising behavior and competencies [3], p. 11. Moreover, entrepreneurship educators are expected to reflect on their teaching practice [3]. Problem solving has become a central method in both the philosophy of science and cognitive science [20]. Additionally, a feedback loop of the opportunity development process can contribute to the effectiveness of entrepreneurship training [64].

Higher education institutions engage in EE to increase their social value creation and develop students’ opportunities recognition. Entrepreneurial educators focus on enhancing the student experience, which will lead to the achievement of desirable outcomes [3]. Based on current practices, business schools have been relatively successful in connecting with key education stakeholders, being UN-PRME signatories and committing to its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [15] but there is less evidence of how these impressive mission statements are reflected in the way in which management education is delivered.

5. Social and Environmental Entrepreneurial Discovery

EE focuses on developing the motivation, self-efficacy and ability of learners to bridge theory and practice by placing their classroom learning in a relevant, meaningful social and environmental context [65]. Social entrepreneurs engage in entrepreneurial activities, such as opportunity identification, exploitation, resource mobilization, and innovation, to create “a new venture or innovatively manage an existing organization” to achieve their social mission [66], p. 519. There has been an increased interest in SE and social innovation during the last decade [67]. SE represents a powerful mechanism for confronting poverty, empowering women, catalyzing social transformation, fostering inclusive growth in subsistence marketplaces and effecting institutional change [67].

While social responsiveness and sustainability have become increasingly important in management education and have found their way into accreditation standards, many business schools are yet to fully embrace and integrate them into their curriculum [68]. The policy of infusing corporate social responsibility (CSR), SE and social innovation [69] into the education system has generated considerable interest in the last few decades [25]. The debates on the relevance of EE have always focused on the role of entrepreneurship in economic development. It is believed that promoting entrepreneurial education in high schools, colleges and universities will have a positive impact on the entrepreneurial dynamism of world economies.

By undertaking EE, learners are likely to develop the knowledge, entrepreneurial skills and ‘practical experience’ required to start up a business or become ‘intrapreneurial’ in employment in private and public organizations [70]. Consequently, EE should focus on making students more creative, opportunity-oriented, proactive and innovative, adhering to a wide definition of entrepreneurship that is relevant to all walks of life [25]. To achieve these objectives, EE focuses on the personality characteristics of entrepreneurs and their planned behavior. However, the question of whether individuals can be taught to be entrepreneurial remains the subject of debate in academic and practitioner circles [71].

Most definitions of SE converge on the primacy of social value creation as the main objective of the venture, while creating economic value [67]. Fortin [72] once defined entrepreneurship as the appropriation and management of human, physical and financial resources to create, implement and develop solutions that meet the needs of individuals and societies [73], p. 7. This definition highlights the changing world’s economic structure and societies. It also highlights the management of certain character traits that stimulate entrepreneurship. Therefore, an entrepreneur is a person who can turn a dream, problem or opportunity into a viable business. The concept of an intrapreneur is recognized and defined as someone who acts or takes responsibility for carrying out innovation, of any kind, within an enterprise [73]. These notions form the foundation on which EE develops.

Entrepreneurs contribute to solving environmental problems by helping the extant institutions to achieve their goals and by creating new, more environmentally sustainable products, services and institutions [74]. A model of environmental innovation should create entrepreneurs who address environmental uncertainty and provide innovations that engage in resource allocation to address environmental degradation [74]. In this context, EE must integrate social and environmental innovations that help students to develop the knowledge and skills to create sustainable solutions [75]. There is an argument that sustainability does not retain a strong presence in business schools and that sustainability integration in business academia requires a significant transformation [76].

6. Entrepreneurial Curriculum Design and Teaching Pedagogy

Universities are at the forefront of advancing EE and innovations. Despite the unprecedented growth of EE, there is no universal curriculum for the teaching of entrepreneurship. The British Council IAU program explored synergies for promoting effective EE and innovations aimed at overcoming the challenges of universities, society and the environment. The curriculum represents the totality of the experiences provided to the learner in order to attain general knowledge and skills [77]. Curriculum design and teaching pedagogy are necessary to plan and deliver effective EE and enhance the student learning experience. According to Pak et al. [78], the curriculum is typically conceptualized in three distinct forms: (i) the intended curriculum; (ii) the enacted curriculum; and (iii) the attained curriculum. Seitz [79] summarises these concepts with the “intended” curriculum being defined as what societies envisage as important to learn.

Zins [80] explains the difference between ‘empirical knowledge’ (or ‘know-how’) (the understanding of entrepreneurship) and explicit knowledge (‘know-that’) (behaving as an entrepreneur) as an epistemology of learning. Both know-how and know-that are embedded in the “learning about” and “learning for” (how to do or be) which shows a typical student’s EE journey [3]. What is delivered in the classroom constitutes the “enacted” curriculum. What students learn constitutes the “achieved” or “attained” curriculum” [79], p. 73. As well as to the three components of the educational environment—curriculum, instruction, and assessment [81]—EE must also be aligned with the intended outcomes. The extent to which these elements work together in guiding instruction and student learning is typically referred to as alignment [81].

When the EE curriculum and teaching pedagogy are aligned, the achievement of responsible entrepreneurial behavior moves in the intended direction.

Table 1. Entrepreneurial Curriculum and pedagogy outcomes.

Curriculum Design	Teaching Pedagogy	Intended Learning Outcomes
Enacted Curriculum	Awareness and knowledge of enterprises and opportunities	Developing understanding of the economy, the meaning of enterprise related to economic, social and environmental behaviors (‘know-how’).
	Problem identification	Learning about entrepreneurship and developing an entrepreneurial mindset based on problem identification (entrepreneurial intention) (‘know-how’).
	Experiential Learning	Exploring live case studies and developing an entrepreneurial capability to act (‘know-how’).
	Self-directed Learning	Personalized entrepreneurial learning and leadership (as intrapreneur or entrepreneur) (‘know-how’).
Curriculum Alignment	Engagement with internal stakeholders (such as enterprise centers, business clubs and societies)	Networking, experimenting and showcasing capabilities (‘know-how’).
Cognitive Process	External engagement (Community events, social events, exhibitions, industry visits, etc.)	Critical feedback from business managers and community leaders, developing potential partners and access to investors and early users (‘know-how’).
	Placement and work-based learning	Problem solving and development of guided experience and practices (entrepreneurial effectiveness) or (‘know-that’).
	Pre-incubation, incubation and problem-solving	Testing and reviewing prototypes and value propositions (entrepreneurial effectiveness) (‘know-that’).
Sustainability	Economic responsibilities, protection of the planet and guaranteed social well-being	Develop knowledge associated with sustainability concerning business strategies, policies and practices.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)	Promotion of social, environmental and ethical responsibilities	Focus on innovations around social and environmental sustainability, ethics and responsibility of individuals and organizations.

Source: Compiled by the Author.

has been adapted from the [3], p. 22 model, which incorporates learning into the curriculum and learning beyond the curriculum (referred to as the curricular, co-curricular and extracurricular learning pipeline), and has been modified to illustrate the enacted, alignment and cognitive process of developing effective social and environmental EE. The learning pipeline develops enterprise awareness (which enables an understanding of what the enterprise means to learners); an entrepreneurial mindset (through participatory learning); an entrepreneurial capability (through guided experiences and practice); and entrepreneurial effectiveness (self-directed progression and leadership).

It is necessary to reshape and align the curriculum to enable stakeholders to engage in EE activities that translate into meaningful practices and outcomes. Any person, group or organization that has an interest in a policy or entity that can either affect or be affected by the entity or policy or activities is a stakeholder. “Stakeholder theory” has emerged “as a new narrative to understand and remedy three interconnected business problems—the problem of understanding how value is created and traded, the problem of connecting ethics and capitalism, and the problem of helping managers think about management such that the first two problems are addressed” [82], p. 403.

It is essential to reconfigure the EE curricular and extra-curricular learning activities to limit the barriers to EE [83,84]. Reconfiguring around stakeholders enables the extra-curricular (outdoor) learning relevance of knowledge or skills [7,85,86,87]. Experiential learning engages the students in their learning process, reduces one-way communication and places the learner at the center [83]. Creativity and innovation should form the foundation of EE to enable students to develop knowledge on how to develop their creativity and devise the innovations required to foster a competitive advantage [7,88].

Re-imagining the curriculum and teaching pedagogies could allow problem-based learning (PBL), focused on “inquiry activities, self-directed learning, information mining, dialogue and collaborative learning, that can be incorporated into the teaching design [89,90]. EE tutors or mentors focus on coaching or guiding learners to identify a specific problem to enable them to develop the relevant skills and competence to develop employability skills [91]. EE focuses on providing students with the opportunity recognition, creativity and innovation required to identify a problem in society for which a solution does not currently exist, or for which the solution can be improved [18]. Exploring live case studies enable the examination of real business issues that have societal and industrial relevance.

There remain questions about whether the curriculum initiatives are effective in developing an entrepreneurial mindset among students and whether “the so-called entrepreneurial perspective that can be taught throughout the curriculum?” [71], p. 18. Experiential learning approaches, such as gamification, are well-suited to management and EE [83]. Entrepreneurial curricular learning should be aligned with the classroom and outdoor experiences to enable students to develop subject specialisms, employability skills and career aspirations.

Moreover, EE should equip students with the knowledge to analyze the business environment, and advance their employability skills, social skills, entrepreneurial behavior and attainment [92]. It should focus on improving awareness, creativity and cognitive functioning [87]. Peschl et al. [18] propose that learners are put into experiential situations where they have incomplete information and would ideally like to have more information in order to decide about their next step.

EE should focus on creating awareness and developing knowledge of the negative environmental consequences of economic development and as well as possible solutions to economic growth, environmental and social problems. The desirable outcome of EE should be to develop students’ future entrepreneurial behavior, which leads to responsible entrepreneurship, intrapreneurial responsible management and business creation/small business development. The EE curriculum and pedagogy should focus on developing learners’ attitudes to allow learners to develop problem solving skills that are transferable to the real world [93], critical thinking (abstraction) and connectivity (System thinking), [94], making connections, assessing ideas and engaging in solving contemporary issues [3]. Peschl et al. [18] propose that to increase the student experience, EE educators should provide the students with exercises that allow learners to present their problem, solution and customer segment to multiple external advisors who are business and technical professionals on a one-to-one basis.

A major problem with teaching entrepreneurship is that some institutions have a large cohort of management students which limits problem-based learning and one-to-one support. To be effective, an entrepreneurial curriculum should be designed specifically to bridge the gaps between theory and practice, incorporating the new emerging economy (high-growth industries which are at the cutting edge of technology, such as big data and artificial intelligence). EE should focus on creating awareness by allowing self-control which enables students to reflect on their aptitudes, skills enhancement and creativity. Developing critical thinking will enable graduates to adapt to changing work conditions, economy and society. Beyond classroom activities, EE should provide learning spaces that enable experiential learning and interactions by students with diverse stakeholders. Although several enterprise learning models have recommended action-based and experiential learning strategies, there is a lack of information with respect to the specific tools, activities and methods [18].

7. Responsible Entrepreneurship Education (REE)

Entrepreneurship should be a solution to, rather than a cause of, environmental and social problems [74]. The PRME initiative urges business schools to integrate environmental, social, leadership and governance responsibilities and cross-disciplinary topics into core courses, as well as foster diversity among their faculty and students. Proposing an REE revolution, this article posits that EE must focus on developing students’ competencies related to social and environmentally sustainable innovations that make it possible to identify and pursue opportunities and grow existing ventures. REE provides innovative insights into educational strategies for the continued preparation of entrepreneurs that recognize economic responsibility, creativity and environmental, digital and technological sustainability [95].

EE refers to knowledge-generating activities (whether it is an educational or non-educational system) that are designed to develop the participants’ entrepreneurial awareness [96]. EE prepares individuals for employment and career success through the acquisition of the requisite knowledge, skills and experience (self-efficacy, self-determination and self-identity) [3,97] that lead to enterprising behavior (Figure 2). Examples of good EE practices include extracurricular activities, interdisciplinary collaborations, interdisciplinary micro-credit, non-credit bearing modules and formative assessment. The main focus of REE is on the application of enterprising competencies, which tends to extend the learning environment into environments far beyond the classroom—these may include legal and funding-related issues, as well as ‘start-up’ and ‘growth’ or ‘scale-up’ strategies [3]. It also focuses on developing enterprising attitudes, behavior and competencies.

Self-awareness highlights the importance of emerging knowledge to one’s self-confidence and an attitudinal tendency toward entrepreneurship [37]. Self-awareness is an understanding of what an enterprise means to an individual, competencies and self-regulation [98,99]. It has been suggested that all aspects of education must be designed to work together in a uniquely integrated fashion [100]. A major challenge for EE is how to develop the entrepreneurial experiences of students such that the students categorize and conceptualize entrepreneurial failure [11].

In the context of self-efficacy, entrepreneurial experience via knowledge plays a role [37]. Self-efficacy (personality and social identity, motivation and goal) is a key personal variable in Bandura’s social cognitive theory [35,101], defined as “an individual’s belief in his or her own ability to organize and implement action to produce the desired achievements and results” [101], p. 3. Through EE, students are capable of optimizing their learning, in addition to the support that they receive from their families and teachers in educational settings.

Self-capability and self-efficacy are the emotional drivers of entrepreneurship. A major concern is how to embed employability skills into the formal and informal education systems [102,103,104]. Defined as “the negative or positive attitude that individuals have about themselves” [105], self-esteem (worth-based, efficacy-based and authenticity-based esteem) is usually linked to one of the three motives of the self, each of which primarily emerges through the ‘verification’ of the social/group, role, and person identities, respectively [105].

Creativity and risk-taking lead to entrepreneurial competencies, opportunity recognition, evaluation and decision-making. Entrepreneurial competencies develop through enquiring, critical thinking and inspiring leadership, which enable learners to develop a positive attitude towards value creation [3]. Entrepreneurs are required to adjust to emerging knowledge and changes in the global market, society, technology and complex world. The foundation of EE should be based on “a specific set of values (beliefs) and needs which provide the individual with the intrinsic motivation and self-determination to engage in entrepreneurial behavior” [97], p. 292 and the new economy (related to social, digital and environmental problem solving).

8. Conclusions and Implications

It is time to make EE more relevant. More than ever, the global economic, social and environmental challenges require an EE revolution. The argument is that a pedagogical responsible EE revolution is required at all levels of education and societies to build an inclusive society, positive entrepreneurship, good governance and social responsibility. EE approaches focus on critical domains, such as boosting entrepreneurial competencies, creativity, innovation and problem solving. REE emphasizes the development of students’ capabilities to be future generators of sustainable value for businesses and society. The teaching environment should foster an individual’s belief in his or her own ability to organize and act or pursue opportunities. A major problem is that entrepreneurship educators often apply methods similar to teaching general management courses such as business studies and economics. This approach does not allow adaptive or personalized learning.

This article proposes the “4Rs” (re-imagining, reconfiguring, reshaping and reforming) of the curriculum and teaching pedagogy. The curriculum needs to be reimagined in order to develop a contemporary awareness (know-how) about entrepreneurship and knowledge of the new economy (social, digital and environment). Reconfiguring the teaching pedagogies will help to problematize the entrepreneurship environment and outer world. Reshaping highlights collaboration with the stakeholders (“actors” with an interest or “stake”) [106,107] to offer learners the co-curricular and extracurricular experiences and connections required to respond to entrepreneurial opportunities. Examples of pedagogical reforms include incorporating in-class teaching with outdoor activities, industry visits, work placement learning, consultancy projects, business plan assignments, exhibition tours, business competition, etc.

The EE curriculum typically starts by developing enterprise awareness among students through technical and adaptive teaching pedagogy and research. In addition, EE requires pedagogical reforms to advance entrepreneurial behavior within the scope of responsible principles (economic, social and environmental innovations). EE requires pedagogical reforms that leverage a different logic of innovation, as well as technological, economic and social changes. The “4Rs” of the curriculum and teaching pedagogy integrate “learning in the curriculum” and “learning beyond the curriculum” [3]. It is important that EE focuses on creating awareness and developing the capability of learners to respond to the changing economy, considering the changing social, environmental and emerging technologies and concepts.

The “4Rs” of curriculum design and pedagogical changes enhance the competencies related to the flexibility and adaptability to the changing economy. There is a need to re-think EE to encourage graduates to consider launching not-for-profit-oriented businesses, environmentally sustainable businesses, as well as socially oriented activities. A model of Responsible Entrepreneurship Education (REE) incorporates socially responsibility, ethically responsibility, environmentally responsibility, economically responsibility, legally responsibility, and responsible leadership.

The achievement of REE depends on the ability to successfully develop learners’ self-awareness, self-regulation and self-control. The entrepreneurial curriculum must be adaptable, flexible, and interdisciplinary. EE should develop the capability of future leaders to generate sustainable value for business and society, such as the practice of ethical consumption and production, business creation, self-employment and job creation capabilities, legally responsible and good governance and leadership and management. This aligns with the objectives of the “IAU” model that highlights the relationships between higher education institutions, business, government, and society.

PRME utilises the core principles and values to encourage the reform of management education [62]. Working towards achieving sustainable development provides a range of complex challenges for EE educators, not only related to curriculum design and pedagogy. Teaching students about entrepreneurial failure offers a particular challenge for entrepreneurship educators [11]. Furthermore, it is difficult for educators to apply a teaching pedagogy that allows students to gain direct experience with entrepreneurial practices through “learning by doing”, such as work-based learning or placement, due to the limited industrial opportunities and large population of graduates that require such a scheme.

Higher education institutions have dwindling and limited resources to embark on outdoor learning that enables students to gain collaborative learning, creativity, imagination and team-working experience. The concepts of “learning in the curriculum” and “learning beyond the curriculum” must be adaptive and focused on experiential learning (such as business simulations) and PBL. A major challenge is how to overcome the problem of large classrooms, especially when teaching the characteristics of business actions. that is, entrepreneurial action and causal action [83]. Due to dwindling resources, many institutions admit a large cohort and continue to rely on the traditional methods of learning, which turns the teacher into a knowledge transferor, thereby limiting creativity, critical thinking, discovery, evaluation and the exploitation of opportunities.

The lack of a social and environmental orientation limits the achievement of PRME and graduates who self-identify as aligned to social values. Learning through self-directed learning and team learning should be encouraged. Students should have access to mentors who are entrepreneurs and business advisers, to whom they may relate and share their entrepreneurial experiences and journey. Students should be provided with extracurricular experiences, such as opportunities to learn in small groups, social networking, business networking, alumni, and business societies, that enable them to engage in informal learning, cross-culturally and collaboratively.

EE is expected to have a strong impact on the society and economy [104]. Therefore, PRME values require business schools to develop future responsible leaders. Therefore, EE needs to re-orient learners towards social and environmental responsibility, responsible leadership, stewardship and accountability. The attitudes of teachers and students are often seen to be the biggest obstacle to learning [4]. Entrepreneurship educators are expected to collaborate with partners (stakeholders) from all aspects of society to find solutions to problems in industry and society. In addition, an EE pedagogy should enable students to advance their knowledge and gain support [108], advanced employability skills and career choices [94].

Finally, conceptual articles have become a powerful means of undertaking high-quality research and building theory [13,109]. The conceptual approach enables the development of a structure and logic that enhances knowledge by extending an original concept [13]. Although conceptual applications provide the foundations for building scientific and theoretical knowledge, there are some limitations, including an overreliance on previously conducted studies and no form of experiment and primary data [110]. However, this article provides a foundation for future studies in the field of REE. There is a need for future research that explores pedagogical best practices, curriculum design, innovation-based EE and methodologies. Another opportunity is to study how environmental context influences EE education, the differences in the rural and urban contexts and the role of EE in addressing gender diversity and inclusion.