Importance, Tools, and Challenges of Protecting Trees
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Tree Versus Forest: Definitions and Typology
- Forest trees (Figure 1A and Figure 2C): These are multifunctional trees located in a forest and form an ecosystem with other plants and organisms. They have a triple ecological, economic, and social function. The protection of these trees is directly linked with the forestry law of a provided country or an administrative unit (e.g., governmental administration, ministry of environment, national park administration, etc.) [32,38].
- Trees outside forests (TOF): This term, coined in the 1990s, encompasses all trees that are not growing in a forested area [32]. They are often overlooked and undervalued, and they are not regularly included in local or national inventories and laws [40]. The following subcategories of TOF can be differentiated [27]:
- B.1.
- Urban trees (Figure 1B): They are distinguished from forest trees on the one hand because of their geographic location but also because of their tendency to monofunctionalism. In other words, they are trees with a monofunctional tendency located in the city or its periphery, planted or preserved as a result of a human decision with a social or an ecological aim (e.g., embellishment of cities, urban orchards, and fight against temperature rise and pollution). The protection of these trees has gained more attention in in recent decades and is largely organized by territorial planning (municipal council, administrations of cities, etc.) [41,42].
- B.2.
- Rural trees (Figure 1C and Figure 2A): Trees growing in a rural landscape. They are isolated trees or groups of trees located in agricultural areas and whose existence is linked to a human decision, exploited for the various products that can be obtained. However, unexploited isolated trees or tree groups that grow spontaneously and possess various ecological and social functions also belong to this category, e.g., hedges and landscape elements [43].
- B.3.
- Road trees (Figure 1D): Roadside trees, often forming road alleys, are multifunctional features usually planted to mark roads and paths. They possess various ecological (e.g., pollution control and corridors connecting habitats) and social functions (e.g., road layout, landscape elements, and educational value) [44,45]. Since multiple road authorities claim that tree-lined routes pose a threat to traffic safety, they are often a cause of conflict between the safety of humans and biodiversity protection [46].
- Monument trees (Figure 1E and Figure 3): This category transcends the four categories and subcategories listed above, in the sense that forest, urban, rural, or road trees can be classified as so-called landmarked, heritage, veteran, holy, or monument trees. Their protection is in certain countries and societies very ancient and has often been embodied in the law of environmental protection and nature conservation [47,48,49]. Each country possesses its own denomination and criteria in selecting such trees (e.g., in Germany “denkmalgeschützte Bäume”, in Poland “drzewa pomnikowe” and in France “arbre remarquables”). One of the criteria can be the rarity, endemism, or conservation status of a provided tree species. More often, however, monument trees are selected due to their dimension, age, or spiritual value [20,29,31,50,51,52,53]. This category also encompasses small groups of old trees or preserved small patches of forest, such as sacred groves, remnants of ancient traditions and pagan religions in Europe [23], or fengshui woods in China (Figure 3E) [54,55].
- Habitat trees (Figure 1F and Figure 2B): This category also transcends the categories and subcategories listed above. A habitat tree is a living or dead standing tree that bears at least one microhabitat [39]. Tree-related microhabitats (abbreviated as TreMs) are very small-scale or specially delimited habitats supported by the individual tree. Thousands of different, sometimes highly specialized, animal, plant, lichen, and fungal species depend for at least part of their life cycle on these structures [14,56]. Although the concept of habitat trees was developed nearly 200 years ago [49], this category has only recently been officially recognized in several European countries and is an object of national or local laws and regulations (e.g., in Germany, Switzerland, France, etc.) [39].
3. Tools and Initiatives for the Protection of Trees
3.1. International Initiatives
3.2. International Conventions and Agreements
3.3. Red Lists
3.4. Lists of Protected Species
3.5. Monument Trees
3.6. Trees as Legal Persons
4. Challenges of Tree Protection
4.1. Large Number of Tree Species
4.2. Large Number of Threatened Tree Species
4.3. Protection of Forest Trees
4.4. Protection of Trees Outside Forests
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Kozlowski, G.; Song, Y.-G. Importance, Tools, and Challenges of Protecting Trees. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013107
Kozlowski G, Song Y-G. Importance, Tools, and Challenges of Protecting Trees. Sustainability. 2022; 14(20):13107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013107
Chicago/Turabian StyleKozlowski, Gregor, and Yi-Gang Song. 2022. "Importance, Tools, and Challenges of Protecting Trees" Sustainability 14, no. 20: 13107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013107