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Article

Sustainability of Coastal Agriculture in the Face of Soil Degradation: The Influence of Water Salinization as an Example

by
Mariame Kholaiq
1,*,
Safaa Benmessaoud
2,
Mohammed Kara
2,*,
Amine Assouguem
3,
Arshad Mehmood Abbasi
4,5,
Abdullah Ahmed Al-Ghamdi
6,
Mohamed S. Elshikh
6,
Abdelmajid Rahimi
1 and
Najib Saber
7
1
Laboratory of Geodynamic and Geomatics, Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences El Jadida, Chouaib Doukkali University, Av. Jabrane Khalil Jabrane, El Jadida 24000, Morocco
2
Laboratory of Biotechnology, Conservation and Valorisation of Natural Resources (LBCVNR), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdallah University, Fez 30000, Morocco
3
Laboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez 30000, Morocco
4
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
5
University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, 9, 12042 Pollenzo, Italy
6
Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
7
SAM Laboratory, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Higher School of Technology Sidi Bennour, Chouaib Doukkali University, Av. des Facultés, El Haouzia, El Jadida 24123, Morocco
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(20), 13641; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013641
Submission received: 16 August 2022 / Revised: 29 September 2022 / Accepted: 8 October 2022 / Published: 21 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Land Change and Soil Degradation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The pump-irrigated soils of the coastal Chaouia in Morocco are subject to changes in their qualities due to the quality of the irrigation water and their proximity to the sea. This work aims to approach irrigation water quality and the influence of these waters on the quality of agricultural soils. The study is based on the systematic and selective sampling of water and soils (19 water samples and 19 soil samples). Analyzed parameters mainly include the salinity and pH of the soil and water samples. The main results show that soil pH varies from 6.81 to 7.7. However, the pH of the water varies from 6.22 to 8.13. The electrical conductivity in soils varies from 12,260 μs/cm to 700 μs/cm and from 1123 μs/cm to 8120 μs/cm. The results of the analysis of soil salinity show that in moving away from the sea, the salinity decreases, and the salinity of the water samples follows the same trend. The Richard and Wilcox graphs show that most water samples taken near the sea are highly mineralized and have poor water quality. This paper presents important aspects of the feasibility of coastal agriculture and can be a source of inspiration for future research and planning of coastal agriculture.

1. Introduction

The growth of the world’s population has led to an increase in the demand for food produced by agriculture. Soil and irrigation water salinity is a significant problem in many countries [1,2]. These salinity problems, encountered on agricultural land, are often related to an uncontrolled water table 1 or 2 m below the ground [3]. When the water table is shallow, water enters the root zone by capillary action, and if it is salty, the water is a permanent source of salt when used by cultures or when it evaporates from the surface.
Salts can disrupt the physical development of plants by affecting water uptake, which disrupts osmotic processes. In addition, salinity can lead to changes in soil structure, permeability, and aeration, directly affecting plant development and burning [4].
Soluble salts in irrigation water and the intensity of evaporation in irrigated areas often lead to soil salinization, especially in semi-arid regions [5]. Soil salinization affects the sustainability of irrigation water systems and the productivity of agricultural land [6].
In many countries, surface water is the primary source of irrigation; in places where this resource is scarce or non-existent, groundwater is used. However, the success of any agricultural development depends on the rational use and periodic monitoring of available water resources [7].
In semi-arid areas, the supply of irrigation water is one of the determining factors for the expansion of agricultural production, both in crop intensification and irrigated areas.
Irrigating crops with groundwater, followed by evapotranspiration, leads to an accumulation of salts in the soil that increases with time, eventually leading to the cessation of all agricultural activity [8].
In semi-arid areas such as the Chaouia coast, where groundwater pumping since 1960 has been the only source of irrigation for vegetable crops, water is the main factor limiting agricultural production [9]. The quantity and quality of available water fundamentally affect the soil, and the crops grown in it [10].
Irrigated agriculture in this region is currently confronted with the risk of salinity, which can be measured by electrical conductivity (EC) and soil alkalinization. The latter, due to ionic exchanges, concerns mainly Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+, between water and clays. The coefficient of absorption of sodium is used to evaluate soil alkalinization [11].
Intensive agriculture on the Chaouia coast has caused a saline intrusion at the level of the littoral and a decrease in the piezometric levels of the aquifer [12].
The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of irrigation water quality on agricultural soils and to infer the influence of irrigation water quality on the productivity of these soils.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Presentation of Chaouia Coast

The study area is located in the lower Chaouia, an agricultural region in the coastal Chaouia, located between the cities of Casablanca and Azemmour. With a total area of 1200 km2, this sub-Atlantic plain is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the area of schist outcrops to the south, and the wadi Bouskoura to the east. The wadi Oum-Er-Rbia to the west gently slows toward the ocean, and strips of ancient and recent dunes mark the ocean’s edge [13]. The region has an agricultural and pastoral vocation, with a critical market gardening activity using only groundwater, developed over several decades [9].
The geology of the Chaouia coastal plain, like all the plains located between Rabat and Azemmour, is quite simple. It consists of the primary basement on which a tertiary and quaternary cover of low power rests in discordance. The Paleozoic is formed of entirely impermeable or deficient permeability soils in the altered upper fringe. The predominant primary formations are shales and quartzites with associated sandstones. These terrains are attributed to the Acadian and Ordovician (Figure 1).
The Cretaceous cover is poorly developed in the region; its extension is limited to the area between Tnine Chtouka and Azemmour and outcrops in the valley of the wadi Oum-Er-Rbia in the form of limestone and yellow marl. The Plio-quaternary consists of a thin film of silts and silty sands that extend over most of the plain [14].
The climate of the coastal Chaouia region is semi-arid with oceanic influence. The average annual temperature is 17 °C with a minimum of 10 °C and a maximum of 40 °C. The driest year was observed in the winter of 1986 (127.5 mm). The wettest year was in the winter of 1996, with precipitation of 512.1 mm. The average annual precipitation is about 300 mm [15,16].

2.2. Sampling and Materials

The sampling campaign was performed in June 2019 based on the distance between the sites and the sea after choosing the location of the points where the sampling will be carried out on a topographic map.
The sampling is therefore applied to two areas: the first is located along the coastline (ten sampling points that are spread out at a distance of 0 to 1.8 km from the seacoast), and the second is far from the sea (nine sampling points are spread out at a distance of 4.5 to 11 km from the seacoast). Soil samples were collected from each point, and water samples were collected from adjacent wells used for irrigation (Figure 2).

2.2.1. Physicochemical Characterization of Soil

To study the physicochemical properties of the soils, 19 sampling points were selected. 1.5 kg of soil was collected from 0–20 cm depth at each sampling point. They were first air-dried for a week, then crushed with a porcelain mortar, then sieved to 2 mm, and bagged for granulometric and chemical analyses, namely electrical conductivity, which was measured by the saturated paste extract according to Baize (2018) [17,18,19,20].
About 30 g of 2 mm sieved soil was used for particle size analysis. However, it is necessary to destroy the organic matter (which plays the role of cement) beforehand at a high temperature (400 °C) using 30% H2O2. The soil was then dispersed by rotary shaking into 300 cc flasks after adding sodium hexametaphosphate (1 g/L of suspension). Particle size analysis was performed using the international Robinson pipette method [18,21].
The suspension was then sieved to 2 mm and 50 µm to recover coarse sands (2000–200 µm) and fine sands (200–50 µm). The latter were washed thoroughly with distilled water, dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h and then weighed.
The pH was measured based on the method of Mc. Lead (1982) [22,23,24].
The structural stability of the soil is defined as the strength of the soil structure and its resistance to the degrading action of external factors, especially the action of water. It was determined using the weighted average diameter (WAD) which was calculated according to the formula proposed by Castro et al. (1998) [25,26].

2.2.2. Physicochemical Characterization of Irrigation Water

For irrigation water sampling, 19 wells were selected in the proximity of the sampled soil points. The collected water samples were put in plastic bottles, kept in a cooler (4 ± 2 °C) for a maximum of 72 h, and then taken to the laboratory. Thirteen important parameters were selected for physicochemical water quality analysis: temperature, turbidity, total dissolved solids, pH, electrical conductivity, chloride ion (Cl−) concentration, Nitrate (NO3−) concentration, Calcium (Ca2+) concentration, Magnesium (Mg2+) concentration, Potassium (K+) concentration, Sulfates (SO42−) concentration, Bicarbonates (HCO3−) and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, using the standard method of APHA (2005) [27,28].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results of Soil Analysis

Most soils were characterized by a silty-sandy texture and were very unstable to moderately stable in all three zones. The percentage of water-stable aggregates increases with the clay content of the soil, and these are more vulnerable to erosion. The soil stability in the study area could probably result from the soil texture and organic matter content in each area and sample (Figure 3).
Structural stability plays an essential role in soil fertility because it influences its physical (aeration, water circulation, permeability, and erodibility), chemical (ionic exchanges, and carbon sequestration), and biological (microorganism activities, and root growth) properties [29,30].
In the first area (near the sea), the WAD varies from 0.24 in sample S10 to 1.31 in sample S8, with a mean of 0.67 ± 0.23 and a variation coefficient of 40.14%. For the second area which is far from the sea, WAD values vary from 0.31 (S4) to 0.997 (S9), with a mean of 0.69 ± 0.21 and a variation coefficient of 31.06% (Table 1).
Referring to the values established by Le Baissonnais and Le Souder (1995), who used different disaggregation treatments to determine the stability classes, we can say that our soils remain very unstable to moderately stable in the second zones [31,32].
The formation of a solid surface crust in these second areas is mainly due to the risk of runoff and diffuse erosion.
The results of the pH analysis of the soils near the sea range from 7.52 to a minimum of 7.34 (weakly alkaline). These results are slightly higher than the pH of the samples of the soils distant from the coast, which varied from 6.81 (neutral) to 7.68 (weakly basic) with an average of 7.30 (neutral) (Figure 4). Thus, it can be seen that the overall pH of the soils is in an optimal zone for the production of most plant species. It can be seen that the pH values are high in the approximate sea area compared to the other two areas.
These samples with a high pH (alkaline) can present a brake in the availability and assimilability of certain elements (Zn, P, N), leading to their deficiency. In China, coastal soils have pH values ranging from 7.5 to 8.5 [33]. Balkhair (2015), found that most soils have a pH of about 7.9 in the western region of Saudi Arabia [34,35].
The Chaouia region is known for its market garden crops, which are indifferent to soil pH, and their yield varies little with pH variation.
The electrical conductivity of saturated paste is high near the sea. It oscillates between 1219 µs/cm to 12,260 µs/cm with an average of 4441.9 µs/cm (Figure 5). In contrast, for the soil far from the sea, a decrease in electrical conductivity is noted in the majority of the soils with values that vary between 700 µs/cm and 4200 µs/cm with an average of 2240.6 µs/cm. These results are probably related to the approach of the elevation and the irrigation water, as well as the texture of the soil favoring the leaching of salts.
A Pearson correlation was performed on 16 variables. The variables used were: clay, silt, sand, organic matter (OM), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), pH and pHkcl, calcium carbonates (CaCO3), electrical conductivity (EC), nitrates (NO3), total nitrogen, stability index and mean weight diameter (DWP), cation exchange capacity and percentage of exchangeable sodium.
In the first zone (0–1.8 km), the Pearson test revealed a highly significant negative correlation between pH and DMP (−0.645) and between pH and organic matter (−0.551). This correlation means that the decrease in organic matter increases the alkalinity of the soil. According to Saenger (2013), a very alkaline pH means low contents of organic carbon [36,37]. In this zone, we also observed the existence of a positively significant correlation between electrical conductivity and nitrates (0.557), and a very positive correlation between Clay and Silt (0.835). The area proves the existence of the two very negative significant correlations between Clay and Sand and between Silt and Sand with −0.925 and −0.981, respectively.

3.2. Physicochemical Characterization of Irrigation Water

The pH of water is an essential indication of the quality and provides important information on the geochemical balance or the calculation of the solubility of microelements [38,39]. These values are correlated with several factors (the origin of the water, the composition of the parent rock, and the watershed crossed) [40,41]. In the case of our study area, the pH of the sector near the sea varied between 6.22 and 8.13. The results found for the pH of the irrigation water in our study area were pretty similar to the soil pH. The ideal values of the pH of the water used in irrigation are 6 to 7, as the solubility of most micronutrients is optimal at these values [42,43]. In contrast, the pH of the area far from the sea oscillates between 7.12 (neutral) and 7.87 (medium basic), with an average of 7.51 (low basic) (Figure 6).
Most of the wells analyzed are suitable for irrigation based on pH. Other wells require pH correction. The high pH may be due to high Na+ and Cl− concentrations.
The waters of coastal Chaouia also show significant variations in mineralization. The electrical conductivity (Figure 7) is very high near the sea and oscillates between 1340 µs/cm to 8120 µs/cm, averaging 5307.7 µs/cm. On the other hand, the EC decreases as it moves away from the sea, with a minimum of 1123 µs/cm, a maximum of 2300 µs/cm, and an average of 1604.8 µs/cm. These high values of water electrical conductivity are due to a high concentration of mineral salts caused by intense pumping and a reduced inflow to the water table [13,44].
High levels of electrical conductivity are found, especially west of Bir Jedid; these values correlate with the water table’s depth, which is low and allows intense evaporation, thus generating a high concentration of salts [45].
According to several previous studies, this high concentration of electrical conductivity in the waters of the coastal strip is probably due to the intrusion of salt water which is present due to a proliferation of pumping and a reduction in water supply [13,46].
From these results, we noticed that both Chlorides Cl− and Sodium Na+ exceed the acceptable limits for irrigation waters. It increases water salinity by base exchange and can be toxic to sensitive vegetable crops. Excess sodium reduces permeability, preventing irrigation water infiltration, which can lead to plant asphyxiation. In all three areas, nitrate values were high with infrequent exceptions, probably due to the application of market gardening in the study area. The latter is a great consumer of mineral fertilizers of a nitrogenous type and the sandy texture of the soils, which requires periodic and alternative monitoring of the well water used for irrigation.
Dissolved oxygen is a good indicator of water pollution and the monitoring of their self-purification. Our study area presents values that oscillated between 3.07 mg/L and 6.09 mg/L. Comparing our values of dissolved oxygen with those of the Khyayta station, we note that at this station, the levels can go down to 0.96 mg O2/L (inferior quality), which reflects a high load of organic matter in this sector [41]. They ranged from 221.54 to 2199.2 mg/L (average 910.82 ± 559.2 mg/L) in the first zone (0–1.8 km), and from 179.76 to 1763.33 mg/L (average 803.39 ± 468.56 mg/L) in the second zone (1.8–4.5 km), and from 221.54 to 1311.42 mg/L with an average of 684.77 ± 337.51 mg/L in the third zone (4.5–11 km). A clear decrease in the Mg2+ concentration can be seen when moving away from the first zone, even if it remains outside the prescribed limit for irrigation. These results are high compared to those found by other authors (Table 2).
Phosphorus in the study area varied from 6.97 ppm to 129.99 ppm with a coefficient of variation of 100.93%. The values found in our study area are comparable to those found by Hallam et al., 2014, in a characterization done on one hundred and sixty soil samples in the Issen-irrigated perimeter in the Souss Valley, which ranged from 4 to 232 ppm [47].
After plotting all of the water points on the Richards diagram, which involved electrical conductivity and SAR alkalizing power (Figure 8), the following classes are highlighted:
For the wells near the sea, most of the wells belong to the C5-S3 class, indicating poor water quality, very strongly sodic and mineralized, according to Richards (1954) [48,49]. For these to become usable, two factors need to be controlled: low salinity and the addition of soluble Ca2+. W10 is the only exception, representing the C3-S2 class which designates poor water and can only be used to irrigate crops resistant to high salt concentrations. These crops must be grown on drained fields and/or fields with excellent permeability.
For wells far from the sea coast, most wells are in class C3-S2. The water is moderately sodic, with an appreciable danger of alkalization with a fine texture, and recognized by an intense exchangeability. These wells are usable for organic soils with a gross texture or are highly permeable. Because of the sodium concentration, the only wells that belong to C3-S3 are W7 and W9.
From the Wilcox classification given in Figure 9, for zone 1 (near the sea), the water sample W10 fell under the excellent class in terms of water quality, the W8 fell under the poor class and the rest of the water samples fell under the inadequate class. For the samples far from the sea (zone 2), the W7 and W3 fell under poor classification. As is the case with Richard’s classification, the excellent class of water quality indicates low mineralization, whereas poor quality indicates strong mineralization. Therefore, poor-quality water poses a significant risk of soil salinization.
Irrigation waters in the coastal Chaouia vary considerably in the concentration and composition of dissolved salts. Some of these constituents are beneficial to plants, and others at very high concentrations appear to have detrimental effects on plants or soils. In contrast, others compromise plant growth or are harmful to soils.
The major constituents, cations (calcium, magnesium, and sodium) and anions (bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, potassium, carbonate, and nitrate) may be present. Nevertheless, in general, only in low concentrations and small quantities because their influence on water quality for irrigation is not essential, and they are generally neglected. These are absent in this region.
Irrigation water quality and proper irrigation are critical to crop production in the Chaouia region. Irrigation water quality has affected crop yields and physical soil conditions, even if all other conditions and cultural practices are favorable or optimal [50,51,52].
Agricultural activity is regarded as the dominant community activity in the coastal region of Chaouia. However, the sustainable improvement of agriculture is inhibited by several factors, such as the aridity of the climate, the proximity of the seacoast, the quality of irrigation water, and, of course, the deteriorating condition of cultivated soils. Our region is an example of areas in the Chaouia that suffer from these phenomena. In the Chaouia, we have contemplated the existence of damages probably caused by irrigating the soils with salty and sour quality waters. These damages are manifested in the growth rate and the leaf surface of the plants, which are reduced. Also, a physiological disturbance was expressed by a deficiency in chlorophyll production (Figure 10).
This study allowed us to determine the main origins of mineralization in irrigation water of the coastal Chaouia, which are: infiltration of water, irrigation by water loaded with salts and fertilizers, the marine influence on the littoral part, and the geological nature of the mother rocks of the aquifers.

4. Conclusions

Agricultural production is the leading ecosystem service in the Chaouia region. This work highlights the importance of soil degradation and irrigation water quality as potential limitations to agricultural production in this coastal region. It is, therefore, essential in understanding the future evolution of salinity. The accumulation of salts on agricultural land is due to the quantity and quality of irrigation water applied. In order to face this problem, it is necessary to research new types of crops, new varieties, and new agricultural practices.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.K. (Mariame Kholaiq) and A.R.; data curation, M.K. (Mariame Kholaiq), S.B., A.M.A. and M.S.E.; formal analysis, S.B., A.M.A. and M.S.E.; investigation, M.K. (Mariame Kholaiq) and N.S.; software, M.K. (Mohammed Kara) and A.A.; supervision, A.R. and N.S.; writing—original draft, M.K. (Mariame Kholaiq), S.B., M.K. (Mohammed Kara), A.A., A.R. and N.S.; writing—review & editing, A.A.A.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2022R483), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2022R483), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 14 13641 g001 550
Figure 1. Geological map of the Chaouia basin [14].
Figure 1. Geological map of the Chaouia basin [14].
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Figure 2. Location map of sampling points (water and soil).
Figure 2. Location map of sampling points (water and soil).
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Figure 3. A soil textural triangle with collected soil samples shown as pink circles.
Figure 3. A soil textural triangle with collected soil samples shown as pink circles.
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Figure 4. Variation in soil pH. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
Figure 4. Variation in soil pH. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
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Figure 5. Variation in soil electrical conductivity. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
Figure 5. Variation in soil electrical conductivity. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
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Figure 6. Variation in pH of well water. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
Figure 6. Variation in pH of well water. NS: Near the sea. FS: Far from the sea.
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Figure 7. Variation in the electrical conductivity of well water.
Figure 7. Variation in the electrical conductivity of well water.
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Figure 8. Richards diagram of well water (L: Low; M: Medium; H: High).
Figure 8. Richards diagram of well water (L: Low; M: Medium; H: High).
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Figure 9. Wilcox plot of well water.
Figure 9. Wilcox plot of well water.
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Figure 10. Impact on plant growth and leaf area, (a) leaf of Visia phaba grown in control soil; (b) leaf of Visia phaba grown in the study area; (c) growth of Zea mays cultivated in control soil; (d) growth of Zea mays grown in the study area.
Figure 10. Impact on plant growth and leaf area, (a) leaf of Visia phaba grown in control soil; (b) leaf of Visia phaba grown in the study area; (c) growth of Zea mays cultivated in control soil; (d) growth of Zea mays grown in the study area.
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Table
Table 1. Mean weight diameter values were elaborated for the two areas.
Table 1. Mean weight diameter values were elaborated for the two areas.
Mean Weight Diameter
Area 1 (Near from Sea)Area 2 (Far from the Sea)
S10.351S10.352
S20.596S20.319
S30.482S30.637
S40.369S40.697
S50.432S50.554
S61.314S60.846
S70.316S70.597
S80.429S80.843
S90.745S90.997
S100.247
Table
Table 2. Results of well water analysis.
Table 2. Results of well water analysis.
SamplesEC (µs/cm)pHCa++
(ppm)		DO
(mg/L)		NO3−
(mg/L)		P
(ppm)		Mg++
(ppm)		Na+
(ppm)
Close to the seaW155406.4220.445.1843.51231.26479.561364.07
W266806.22216.4324.6144.2316.69583.5681785.9
W367606.64180.365.0942.797.47369.64774.31
W479806.58120.246.0944.7558.82345.76848.34
W513407.7412.8244.8743.826.971487.176232.5
W681207.4660.124.4243.1629.45469.88937.18
W771807.09120.245.0140.8816.18389.76829.14
W824408.13228.4564.2544.23213.88221.544937.92
W954307.16120.244.1142.1628.90179.761357.01
W1016077.580.165.1836.9846.79519.84632.15
Average5307.77.08175.954.88142.65125.92504.64969.85
Far from the seaW115247.5480.165.4236.9828.90719.84942.34
W211397.6444.0885.0141.6413.95505.912722.3
W323007.5768.1364.4132.7264.37431.864636.19
W414557.6780.164.3542.67873.66619.84730.05
W512337.3296.1924.840.088129.99653.808989.67
W611237.44120.243.941.64263.85979.761123.4
W723007.87128.2563.4242.67863.321171.7442390.7
W815677.43156.312441.12477.55643.688815.25
W915897.1280.164.2341.64254.801119.841734.17
Average1581.117.5194.854.3940.1263.38760.691120.45
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Kholaiq, M.; Benmessaoud, S.; Kara, M.; Assouguem, A.; Abbasi, A.M.; Al-Ghamdi, A.A.; Elshikh, M.S.; Rahimi, A.; Saber, N. Sustainability of Coastal Agriculture in the Face of Soil Degradation: The Influence of Water Salinization as an Example. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13641. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013641

AMA Style

Kholaiq M, Benmessaoud S, Kara M, Assouguem A, Abbasi AM, Al-Ghamdi AA, Elshikh MS, Rahimi A, Saber N. Sustainability of Coastal Agriculture in the Face of Soil Degradation: The Influence of Water Salinization as an Example. Sustainability. 2022; 14(20):13641. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013641

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kholaiq, Mariame, Safaa Benmessaoud, Mohammed Kara, Amine Assouguem, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Abdullah Ahmed Al-Ghamdi, Mohamed S. Elshikh, Abdelmajid Rahimi, and Najib Saber. 2022. "Sustainability of Coastal Agriculture in the Face of Soil Degradation: The Influence of Water Salinization as an Example" Sustainability 14, no. 20: 13641. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013641

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