Next Article in Journal
Learning from Failure: Building Resilience in Small- and Medium-Sized Tourism Enterprises, the Role of Servant Leadership and Transparent Communication
Next Article in Special Issue
The Social Exclusion Perspective of Food Insecurity: The Case of Blacked-Out Food Areas
Previous Article in Journal
Study on the Resistance of ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ Grapevine with Different Rootstocks to Colomerus vitis
Previous Article in Special Issue
Can Agricultural Insurance Improve the Nutritional Status of Rural Residents?—Evidence from China’s Policy-Based Agricultural Insurance
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 14
Issue 22
10.3390/su142215207
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Web-Based Experiential Nutrition Education Intervention “The Green Hub” to Promote Sustainable and Healthy Diets among Young Adults in Australia

by
Nadine Ghammachi
*,
Seema Mihrshahi
and
Rimante Ronto
Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(22), 15207; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215207
Submission received: 19 September 2022 / Revised: 7 November 2022 / Accepted: 11 November 2022 / Published: 16 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Research on the Nutrition Security and Food Policy)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: Sustainable and healthy dietary patterns can help achieve both optimal health and reduce environmental impacts. They involve the increased intake of plant-based foods which are local and seasonal, and reduced intake of animal-derived foods and food wastage. There is emerging evidence regarding the use and effectiveness of web-based health promotion programs to improve diet related behaviours especially in young adults. This study investigated the effectiveness of the “Green Hub” pilot study, a four-week web-based experiential nutrition education intervention to promote sustainable and healthy diets among young adults in Australia. Methods: This study used a pre-/post-study design with process evaluation. The four-week intervention integrated modules on different aspects of a sustainable and healthy diets and was delivered through a private Facebook group. Eligible participants were young adults between the age of 18–25 years old residing in Australia. Results: Out of 19 participants who consented, 17 participants completed the program. Two thirds of participants (67%) stated that they were familiar with the sustainable and healthy diet concept but only 33% were able to define this concept comprehensively. The post-intervention survey resulted in improved knowledge, attitudes, and motivation to adopt more sustainable eating patterns. Conclusion: The “Green Hub” experiential nutrition education program showed positive impact on participants’ willingness to adopt sustainable and healthy diets. The findings of this pilot study will inform future larger scale studies and policy development on improving sustainable and healthy diets among young adults.

1. Introduction

Current food systems and diets compromise human health and deplete natural resources concurrently [1]. By 2050, food systems will need to secure food for approximately 10 billion people while helping them achieve optimal health and minimize environmental impact [1,2]. In order to achieve this goal, current food systems and diets need to become more sustainable.
Global food systems encompass all human activities including agricultural production, food processing, distribution, retailing, consumption, and waste disposal [3]. Current agricultural activities for food production have the largest environmental impact by facilitating climate change and depleting natural resources [4,5]. In addition, agricultural activities contribute significantly to production of Greenhouse-Gas Emissions (GHGE), the use of land and fresh waterfall withdrawals, and the loss of marine systems and biodiversity [2,5,6]. Agricultural GHGEs increased by 14% globally, and recently reached 30%, causing a significant increase in global temperature [2,6,7]. Around 80% of agricultural GHGEs arise from the livestock sector, mainly animal-derived food production [8,9]. Besides agricultural practices, current food consumption patterns, such as an increase in processed and animal-source foods production and consumption, have a significant negative impact on both health and the environment [7,10,11,12]. Negative health outcomes include the rise in overweight and obesity, and development of non-communicable diseases worldwide [11]. Therefore, the topic of sustainable and healthy diets is an emerging area in public health nutrition research aiming to optimize health and reduce environmental impact of food systems.
In 2019, the EAT-Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems shed light on the importance of achieving a “planetary health diet” from sustainable food systems [2]. The recommendations for sustainable and healthy diets depend largely on inclusion of plant-based foods, with optional fish and dairy and minimal red meat intake [10]. Furthermore, recommendations include purchasing local and seasonal produce, reducing food waste, and focusing on sustainably grown produce using environmentally friendly production practices [3,10,13,14].
In the Australian food system context, there is growing evidence regarding the environmental impact of the Australian food system on GHG emissions, water use, and biodiversity [15]. For instance, agricultural production in Australia accounts for 16% of Australia’s total GHG emissions with livestock as the major contributor (about 80%) [15,16]. Despite differences in environmental impact within each group, evidence indicates that production and consumption of plant-based foods in Australia (vegetables, fruits, and grains) have a lower environmental impact compared to animal-sourced and processed foods [15]. Therefore, recent research has investigated the possibility of implementing sustainable and healthy diets in Australia [3,16,17]. Findings show that Australians would like to lead more environmentally friendly lifestyle and mostly support the idea of sustainable diets [3]. However, knowledge and engagement with sustainable eating patterns remains limited [3,17]. It is especially important to start promoting sustainable and healthy diets among young Australians who are known to consume overall poor-quality diets. According to the Australian Institute of Health (AIH) report, young adults are not meeting the recommended servings of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains [18]. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2017–18 National Health Survey (NHS) showed that over half of people between 18–24 years old do not meet the recommended fruit intake, and almost 95% do not meet the recommended vegetable intake [19,20]. In general, young adults are more prone to adopt poor dietary habits compared to other age groups [19,20]. Poor dietary habits can be due to changing life circumstances while transitioning from adolescence into adulthood [20]. The transition to adulthood is often stressful, characterised by changes in relationships and living situations, and influenced by socioeconomic status [19,20,21,22]. This suggests that there is a need for nutrition education programs to help young adults in understanding and adhering to sustainable and healthy diet. One way to reach young adults is through online platforms, particularly social media [23,24,25]. Statistics indicate that young adults are among the most frequent users of mobile phones and the internet [25]. In addition, literature reviews show that young adults appear to be open to receive nutrition related information and cooking content on social media platforms [21,26].
This pilot study aimed to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of a four-week web-based experiential nutrition education program, “The Green Hub”, in promoting sustainable and healthy diets in young adults in Australia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Participants

“The Green Hub” was a four-week web-based experiential nutrition education program delivered through Facebook and used a pre-/post-study design to assess the effectiveness of this program together with process evaluation. Eligible participants were young adults between the age of 18–25 years old residing in Australia (See Table 1 for inclusion/exclusion criteria). Recruitment channels from the general Australian population was restricted to online means due to COVID-19 lockdown measures in Sydney during the period of recruitment (20th of July to 8th of September 2021). A recruitment flyer that included a program description with a QR code link to an Expression of Interest (EOI) form was created. Participants were recruited through advertisements on social media platforms (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter), and student noticeboards at Macquarie University. Interested participants were contacted by the principal researcher who emailed consent forms and provided further instructions on enrolment in the program. “The Green Hub” program was delivered over a four-week period through a private Facebook group. This project was granted ethical approval from the Medicine and Health Sciences Subcommittee at Macquarie University [reference number: 520211037130416].

2.2. Sample Size

For this pilot study, the sample size was calculated based on previous studies which measured diet quality, nutritional knowledge, attitudes, and intentions on 7-point scales, with the assumption that the program will achieve change in knowledge and behaviour by at least by 1 point (10%); therefore, based on matched pairs and on M Diff = 1; SD = 1.6, we estimated that we would need 23 people to complete the program.

2.3. Intervention

The pilot study contained four modules related to sustainable and healthy diets concepts (Table 2). The Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) and the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) helped shape the program strategies. The BCW and TDF are commonly used in public health promotion and nutrition interventions as these models provide the ability to assess factors influencing behaviour change [27,28].
Program modules consisted of a variety of activities including informative posts, quizzes, and cooking videos. In addition to the interactive educational materials, a weekly cooking challenge component was added to the study to increase engagement with the program. Weekly cooking challenges were initiated through posting quick and easy cooking videos every Wednesday which mostly included plant-based meals with high protein meat alternatives. Participants were encouraged to try the recipes and share pictures and feedback. Participants who tried the recipes entered a prize draw to win a Woolworths gift voucher valued at AUD 20 for their groceries each week. At the completion of the program, participants received a certificate of completion at the end of the program.

2.4. Measurements

2.4.1. Process Evaluation

Process evaluation was performed to monitor and document the program’s implementation to gain a better understanding of the relationship between program activities and outcomes. Data on program engagement with the resources (e.g., infographics, videos) were collected based on Facebook insights (likes, comments, and number of views) and answers to quizzes.
Quantitative analysis within the program’s Facebook group was conducted through available insights data to measure participation rate. For instance, number of views on posts, number of cooking videos views, number of likes, comments, and replies on educational posts and stories were collected as usage data and total interactions.

2.4.2. Pre- and Post-Survey

The online pre-post survey was administered at baseline and at completion of the program in order to test any significant changes in sustainable and healthy dietary knowledge and behaviours. Outcomes measured included demographic and anthropometric indices as well as knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, intentions and motivation, food practices, and dietary intake [29,30,31,32,33]. In the post-intervention survey, participants were asked to provide their feedback on the program which was analysed using content data analysis method.
Surveys were kept anonymous; however, matching sampling was possible using unique codes (DOB-Initials) assigned for each participant for pre- and post-surveys. All data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS data analysis software. Socio-demographic characteristics and anthropometric measures of participants were summarised descriptively. Differences in participants’ food and nutrition knowledge, attitudes, cooking skills, and behaviours were investigated from pre- to post-program completion. Significance tests were not performed because of low numbers of complete responses.

3. Results

3.1. Participants

In total, 65 individuals expressed interest in joining the program. Out of 65, only 19 participants returned the signed consent form and enrolled in the Facebook private group by the due date. Out of 19 participants, 17 (89%) completed the whole program.
The majority of participants were females (86.7%), and almost all participants were students (86.7%) and employed either in a full-time or part-time/casual job. About half the participants (53.3%) were born in Australia while others were from different countries around the world. Demographic characteristics are summarised in Table 3.

3.2. Process Evaluation

3.2.1. Fidelity, Activities Delivered

Program activities were posted regularly on the group as per schedule with one cooking video weekly, two to three recipe cards, two quizzes, and four to five educational posts/infographics. The live prize draw was performed on a weekly basis on Sundays.

3.2.2. Participation Rate

Based on Facebook insights, over 90% of participants checked in and viewed the daily posts throughout the four-week period. The pop-up quizzes were successfully engaging with almost 75% of participants engaging first two weeks. Number of likes and comments was considerably low, at an average of 2–3 likes and comments each week per post. However, the high number of “seen by” for all posts indicated that participants were checking the program’s materials. Quantitative results of Facebook insights are presented in Table 4.
Engagement with cooking challenges increased as the program progressed, however, it was noticed that some participants were participating more often than others.
Mostly, comments regarding the recipes were very encouraging, see Table 5.
The positive feedback indicated that participants enjoyed the cooking challenges. The use of exclamation marks, all capital letters emojis, and repetitive adverbs seemed to indicate participants enjoyment and satisfaction. The words “delicious”, “like”, and “love” were repetitively used in comments. In addition, based on participants comments and feedback, some participants altered the recipes based on their personal preferences and/or availability and successfully used leftovers. This may indicate that recipes were flexible and sparked participants creativity and higher order cooking skills.

3.3. Pre-/Post-Survey Results

In total, 15 out of 19 participants (79%) completed the pre-intervention survey and 10 out of 17 (59%) completed post-intervention survey.

3.3.1. Knowledge on Sustainable and Healthy Diet Concept

At baseline and post-intervention, almost all participants strongly agreed/agreed that they are familiar with the sustainable and healthy diet concept although the written definitions were not very comprehensive. In addition, an increasing trend in knowledge regarding environmental impact of food was observed. From pre- to post-intervention, it was noticed that more participants believe that red meat (from 73.3 to 90%) and chicken (from 60 to 80%) should be limited, while whole grains and legumes (from 66.7 to 90–100%) should be enjoyed as part of an environmentally friendly diet.
Participants also recognised the high content of protein in plant-based foods post intervention. This changed for green peas (from 20% pre to 50% post), quinoa (from 66.7% to 90%) and lentils (from 80 to 100%).

3.3.2. Self-Efficacy, Attitudes, Intentions, and Motivations

Overall, results showed an increasing trend towards improved self-efficacy, intentions, and motivation for decreasing meat intake, substituting meat with plant-based alternatives and meeting daily protein intake from plant-based sources. For instance, self-confidence in achieving the recommended protein intake from plant-based food options increased from 67.7% pre-intervention to 90% post-intervention. Interestingly, all participants shifted from not feeling at all confident (20% at baseline) to moderately or fairly/extremely confident about their ability to substitute red meat with legumes and beans. Unexpectedly, confidence in cooking skills (extremely/fairly confident) slightly dropped from 77.3% at pre-intervention to 70% at post-intervention.

3.3.3. Food Practices

Food practices improved from baseline to post-intervention. For instance, participants seemed to purchase more organic and locally produced food products (26.7% to 50%) with less packaging (53.3% to 80%) from baseline to post-intervention. It also appeared that participants were consuming less red meat (26.7% to 40%) and composting food waste more often (40% to 60%) at baseline compared to program completion. There was an increase in the percentage of participants who shopped for food to be prepared at home from baseline (26.7%) to post-intervention (60%). Participants appeared to be better at eating balanced meals, using leftovers for another meal, preparing meals with limited time, buying seasonal produce, planning meals ahead, and cooking efficiently at post-intervention. However, the change was not as noticeable for some food practices such as following recipes when cooking, shopping with specific meals in mind, and shopping with a shopping list. Although a large change was not observed for these three food practices, it is important to note that participant scores were already considerably high at baseline (6.87, 6.86, and 6.53 on a scale of 8, respectively).
In regard to food affordability, 50% of participants post-intervention strongly/somewhat believed that eating a sustainable and healthy diet can be too expensive, which is an important barrier in adopting a sustainable and healthy diet. Similarly, availability of sustainably produced foods and practicality of adopting a sustainable and healthy diet seemed to be potential barriers.
Encouraging results were noted when participants were asked about the likelihood of adopting more sustainable eating behaviours to reduce the environmental impact of foods (refer to Table 6). Participants showed a higher likelihood of consuming more plant-based, seasonal, and locally produced foods, as well as consumption of less red meat and processed foods and a reduction of food waste.

3.3.4. Food Frequency Questionnaire—Dietary Intake

The average serving of 2.73 fruits per day did not change from pre- to post-intervention. A slight drop in average serving of vegetables was noted from baseline (4.47) to post-intervention (4.3). Interestingly, a larger change was observed for fast food, processed meat, and legumes/beans intake. Fast food intake dropped from an average of 2.73 at baseline to two times per week at program completion. Similarly, processed meat intake decreased by an average of once per week from baseline (3.93 times per week) to post-intervention (2.9 times per week). However, legumes and beans intake increased from an average of 4 times a week at baseline to 5.3 times per week post-intervention. Despite the improved attitude and willingness to reduce red meat intake as reported earlier, actual average red meat intake did not record any change from pre- to post-intervention.

4. Discussion

To our knowledge “The Green Hub” pilot study was the first intervention to promote sustainable and healthy diets in young adults in Australia. Although the sample size was considerably small (19 participants), some promising learnings from this study have implications for future research in this area. At pre-intervention, participants had limited knowledge regarding sustainable and healthy eating aspects. “The Green Hub” pilot study has resulted in a better understanding of what constitutes a sustainable and healthy diet among young Australians, especially the importance of reducing red meat consumption in order to achieve a sustainable and healthy diet. Therefore, it is essential to explore the interventions aiming to raise awareness around sustainable and healthy diets. This is a fundamental step to help Australian consumers adopt more sustainable eating patterns [34].
Overall, process evaluation revealed modest engagement with program content based on Facebook insights. Despite modest engagement, participants reported very positive feedback regarding cooking challenges and mainly rated the program as enjoyable, informative, and easy to understand. The survey findings also showed an improving trend in attitudes, self-efficacy, motivation, and willingness to adopt sustainable eating behaviours such as increasing plant-based food intake, substituting red-meat with legumes/grains, and purchasing seasonal and local produce. This study findings are consistent with another similar study, “The Green Eating Project”, a 5-week web-based nutrition intervention aiming to promote sustainable eating behaviours among young adults in the USA [35]. This project resulted in improved attitudes, self-efficacy, and knowledge related to sustainable eating patterns [35].
From pre- to post-intervention, participants showed a better awareness regarding the environmental impact of animal-sourced protein intake and the importance of consuming legumes and grains as alternatives. Food frequency questionnaire results also showed a decrease in processed meat and fast-food intake and an increase in legumes and grains intake. Nevertheless, there was no decrease in red meat consumption at the program completion. Although the significance of improvements in food intake is unknown due to small sample size, this might imply that young adults have the motivation and intentions to reduce red meat intake but need further guidance to change their actual eating behaviour. These findings are consistent with results from a systematic literature review aiming to understand consumer awareness and attitudes towards the environmental impact of meat intake [36]. Results showed that consumers were aware and willing to reduce meat consumption, but only a minority changed their meat intake [36]. Unsurprisingly, previous research showed that some barriers to eliminate or decrease meat intake remain, such as taste, enjoyment, cultural beliefs, and nutrition value (high protein content) [37,38,39]. Therefore, meat reduction could be gradual and presented as a concept of substitutes or food swaps rather than a meat elimination approach. A New Zealand based qualitative study found supportive results regarding young adults’ interest in meat reduction through experimenting with new alternative meal ideas, rather than emphasizing meat elimination [37]. Furthermore, another study looking at consumers’ attitudes and behaviours found not only barriers, but also multiple potential motivators to reduce red meat intake [38]. Motivators such as environmental impact, animal welfare, and health benefits can all be emphasized in future interventions for a stronger and more convincing argument towards reducing meat intake [38].
Using a multidimensional approach to promoting sustainable and healthy diets is important to achieve long-term behaviour change as it has been shown that increasing knowledge and raising awareness alone is not sufficient to support sustainable eating patterns [16]. More factors should be taken into consideration such as affordability, accessibility, and availability of sustainably produced food options. In this study, for example, participants seemed to be more convinced regarding benefits of sustainable and healthy diets for their health, the planet, and the local economy at program completion. However, survey results showed that affordability and accessibility seemed to remain a barrier towards sustainable food consumption and purchasing. This is especially important knowing that, based on research, food cost and availability highly affect consumers’ food choices and eating patterns [17,40]. “The Green Project” study highlighted availability of locally produced food options as a potential barrier for young adults [35]. Regarding affordability, a recent study indicated that in Australia a sustainable and healthy diet can be more expensive than a typical Australian diet, with serious inequities noted among people of different socioeconomic status [40]. On the contrary, it can be argued that affordability could be a misconception among consumers because the study by Barosh et al. [40] was limited to a specific metropolitan area in Australia. A more recent study was conducted with the same aim but on a national scale that is more representative of the Australian context [17]. These findings showed that a sustainable and healthy diet is even more affordable than a typical Australian diet across all areas of the country [17]. Similar results were found in other countries around the world such as the UK and Brazil [41,42]. This might suggest that it is essential to provide information in future interventions on how and where to shop for affordable sustainable and healthy food options. In addition, this is important input for policy makers to make local produce more available and accessible.
Participants’ positive feedback regarding cooking challenges and recipe cards in this study was encouraging. Interestingly, participants seemed to shop more often for food to be prepared at home at program completion. This might indicate that due to cooking challenges, participants were more motivated to cook at home. This is important to address as the literature shows that cooking meals at home more often is associated with better diet quality [34,43,44,45]. Although participants reported positive feedback regarding cooking at home, confidence in cooking skills dropped slightly. This may be related to perceived over-rating of their cooking skills when comparing them to the cooking videos or selection bias due to small sample size. These findings indicate the need to develop more resources that include live cooking shows or easy to follow step-by-step cooking videos, similar to the “The Green Hub” study [22,46]. Other studies targeting young adults also indicated the need to develop more interventions to improve cooking skills and provide meal ideas [22,37]. Adequate cooking skills during young adulthood can predict higher vegetable intake and lower processed and fast food consumption throughout adulthood, and potentially a lower environmental impact of food choices [47].
Young adults are the most avid users of social media platforms including Facebook and Twitter [48]. Facebook provides a wide range of features and insights that made program delivery practical and innovative. In addition, program content was made unrestrictedly accessible for all participants at their own convenience. So almost all participants viewed the program content on a daily basis although overall engagement was considered moderately low. This suggests that Facebook is a potentially convenient yet effective medium for nutrition education interventions. For instance, Brown et al. [49] delivered an intervention using mobile phone texting to increase fruit and vegetable intake among young adults. Participants in the study voted for Facebook being one of the most preferred ways to receive nutrition information which supports our findings [49]. Other systematic reviews are also supportive of the large potential to deliver more interventions for young adults through different social media platforms [21,24]. Nevertheless, overall low engagement remains a commonly reported problem [21,50,51]. Klassen et al. [21] and Maher et al. [50] conducted systematic literature reviews to investigate the effectiveness of social media use in improving nutrition outcomes and health behaviour change in young adults. Both reviews showed that studies that used private Facebook groups retained high rates of daily logins but overall low engagement [21,50]. Engagement also varied widely among studies, meaning that other factors than the choice of platform could also potentially affect program engagement, such as study design, quality of program content, participants’ interests in the topic, and level of readiness to change of the participant [21].

Strengths and Limitations

This study had some strengths and limitations. One main strength of this pilot study is that it is the first web-based intervention to promote sustainable and healthy diets comprehensively among young adults. The study findings will provide evidence to inform larger scale interventions in the future. This is especially important since there has been growing interest in integrating sustainable diets principles in the Australian context [15,17].
A limitation of this study is the small sample size. This may have resulted from uncertainty and the impact of lockdown measures in Sydney which occurred just prior to this project beginning. Other factors such as additional recruitment time or limited recruitment strategies (emails, face-to-face invitations, google advertisements) may have also had an impact [52]. Risk of selection bias and lack of generalisability are important limitations of this study. Participants who joined can differ from the general young adult population by access to internet, education status, interest in sustainable diets, and ability to access a kitchen or cooking facilities. In addition, due to the small sample size, significance tests were not feasible for this study; therefore, positive changes cannot be conclusive. It could also be argued that participants who consented to enrol in the Facebook group were already considering or more interested in sustainable eating patterns than the general population of young adults in Australia. Some other study limitations include participants being mostly females (86.7%), which is in line with previous literature indicating that females usually show more interest in health-related interventions including dietary behaviour than males [50]. It would be interesting to investigate new recruitment strategies to attract more male participants for equal gender representation. Also, the program was delivered over a short period of time, so long-term effects are unknown.

5. Conclusions

“The Green Hub” study showed encouraging results in improving self-efficacy, attitudes, knowledge, and willingness to adopt sustainable and healthy diets using a short intervention over a four-week period, delivered through Facebook. Process evaluation showed a high level of satisfaction with the content, such as cooking challenges, but overall, there was moderate to low engagement using indicators such as “likes” and comments on the Facebook page. “The Green Hub” study will need to be replicated in a larger population of young adults due to our small sample size, and may even be tailored to other population groups. This is the first step for researchers to inform future interventions in the Australian context. Findings presented in this study may be used to inform policy makers to integrate sustainable dietary practices in the Australian food system and promote sustainable and healthy diets in the Australian Dietary Guidelines.

Author Contributions

N.G. and R.R. conceived the research question and study protocol. N.G. designed the study material including nutrition education material, cooking videos, and recruitment tools. N.G. conducted study implementation, data collection, and data analysis, and drafted the paper as first author. S.M. supervised data collection and analysis and R.R. supervised throughout the study. S.M. and R.R. edited subsequent drafts of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was granted ethical approval from the Medicine and Health Sciences Subcommittee at Macquarie University (reference number: 520211037130416).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank Julia Carins and Keren Papier for their guidance and advice on this project. Authors would also like to thank all participants for joining the study and engaging with program material.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Sarlio, S. Towards Healthy and Sustainable Diets Perspectives and Policy to Promote the Health of People and the Planet, 1st ed.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  2. Willett, W.; Rockström, J.; Loken, B.; Springmann, M.; Lang, T.; Vermeulen, S.; Garnett, T.; Tilman, D.; DeClerck, F.; Wood, A.; et al. Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 2019, 393, 447–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Pearson, D.; Friel, S.; Lawrence, M. Building environmentally sustainable food systems on informed citizen choices: Evidence from Australia. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 2014, 30, 183–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Smith, P.; Gregory, P.J. Climate change and sustainable food production. Proc. Nutr. Society. 2013, 72, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  5. Vermeulen, S.J.; Campbell, B.M.; Ingram, J.S.I. Climate Change and Food Systems. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012, 37, 195–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Cederberg, C.; Hedenus, F.; Wirsenius, S.; Sonesson, U. Trends in greenhouse gas emissions from consumption and production of animal food products—Implications for long-term climate targets. Animal 2013, 7, 330–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Clark, M.; Macdiarmid, J.; Jones, A.D.; Ranganathan, J.; Herrero, M.; Fanzo, J. The Role of Healthy Diets in Environmentally Sustainable Food Systems. Food Nutr. Bull. 2020, 41 (Suppl. 2), 31S–58S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Esnouf, C.; Bricas, N.; Champenois, A.; Russel, M. Context: New Challenges for Food Systems. In Food System Sustainability: Insights from duALIne; Esnouf, C., Russel, M., Bricas, N., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013; pp. 5–26. [Google Scholar]
  9. Friel, S.; Dangour, A.D.; Garnett, T.; Lock, K.; Chalabi, Z.; Roberts, I.; Butler, A.; Butler, C.D.; Waage, J.; McMichael, A.J.; et al. Health and Climate Change 4: Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: Food and agriculture. Lancet 2009, 374, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Barbour, L.R.; Woods, J.L.; Brimblecombe, J.K. Translating evidence into policy action: Which diet-related practices are essential to achieve healthy and sustainable food system transformation? Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 2021, 45, 83–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Chan, R.S.M.; Woo, J. Prevention of Overweight and Obesity: How Effective is the Current Public Health Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 765–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Ng, M.; Fleming, T.; Robinson, M.; Thomson, B.; Graetz, N.; Margono, C.; Mullany, E.C.; Biryukov, S.; Abbafati, C.; Abera, S.F.; et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014, 384, 766–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Martini, D.; Tucci, M.; Bradfield, J.; Di Giorgio, A.; Marino, M.; Del Bo’, C.; Porrini, M.; Riso, P. Principles of Sustainable Healthy Diets in Worldwide Dietary Guidelines: Efforts So Far and Future Perspectives. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. UnitedNations. Sustainable Development Goal 12: Ensure Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns [Internet]. Available online: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-production/ (accessed on 28 August 2021).
  15. Friel, S.; Barosh, L.J.; Lawrence, M. Towards healthy and sustainable food consumption: An Australian case study. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 17, 1156–1166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Mann, D.; Thornton, L.; Crawford, D.; Ball, K. Australian consumers’ views towards an environmentally sustainable eating pattern. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 2714–2722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Goulding, T.; Lindberg, R.; Russell, C.G. The affordability of a healthy and sustainable diet: An Australian case study. Nutr. J. 2020, 19, 109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. AIHW. Overweight and Obesity [Internet]. Updated 2020 Jul 23. Available online: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/overweight-and-obesity (accessed on 28 August 2021).
  19. Ashton, L.M.; Sharkey, T.; Whatnall, M.C.; Williams, R.L.; Bezzina, A.; Aguiar, E.J.; Collins, C.E.; Hutchesson, M.J. Effectiveness of Interventions and Behaviour Change Techniques for Improving Dietary Intake in Young Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of RCTs. Nutrients 2019, 11, 825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Roy, R.; Kelly, B.; Rangan, A.; Allman-Farinelli, M. Food Environment Interventions to Improve the Dietary Behavior of Young Adults in Tertiary Education Settings: A Systematic Literature Review. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2015, 115, 1647–1681.e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Klassen, K.M.; Douglass, C.H.; Brennan, L.; Truby, H.; Lim, M.S.C. Social media use for nutrition outcomes in young adults: A mixed-methods systematic review. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2018, 15, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Larson, N.I.; Nelson, M.C.; Neumark-Sztainer, D.; Story, M.; Hannan, P.J. Making Time for Meals: Meal Structure and Associations with Dietary Intake in Young Adults. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2009, 109, 72–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Berryman, C.; Ferguson, C.J.; Negy, C. Social Media Use and Mental Health among Young Adults. Psychiatr. Q. 2018, 89, 307–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Chau, M.M.; Burgermaster, M.; Mamykina, L. The use of social media in nutrition interventions for adolescents and young adults—A systematic review. Int. J. Med. Inform. 2018, 120, 77–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Nour, M.; Chen, J.; Allman-Farinelli, M. Efficacy and External Validity of Electronic and Mobile Phone-Based Interventions Promoting Vegetable Intake in Young Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Med. Internet Res. 2016, 18, e5082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  26. Deliens, T.; Van Crombruggen, R.; Verbruggen, S.; De Bourdeaudhuij, I.; Deforche, B.; Clarys, P. Dietary interventions among university students: A systematic review. Appetite 2016, 105, 14–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Cane, J.; O’Connor, D.; Michie, S. Validation of the theoretical domains framework for use in behaviour change and implementation research. Implement. Sci. 2012, 7, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Michie, S.; van Stralen, M.M.; West, R. The behaviour change wheel: A new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement. Sci. 2011, 6, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  29. Australian Health Survey. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Australian Health Survey: Canberra, Australia, 2021.
  30. Haapasalo, V.; de Vries, H.; Vandelanotte, C.; Rosenkranz, R.R.; Duncan, M.J. Cross-sectional associations between multiple lifestyle behaviours and excellent well-being in Australian adults. Prev. Med. 2018, 116, 119–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Lavelle, F.; McGowan, L.; Hollywood, L.; Surgenor, D.; McCloat, A.; Mooney, E.; Caraher, M.; Raats, M.; Dean, M. The development and validation of measures to assess cooking skills and food skills. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2017, 14, 118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Thompson, C.; Vidgen, H.A.; Gallegos, D.; Hannan-Jones, M. Validation of a revised General Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire for Australia. Public Health Nutr. 2021, 24, 1608–1618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Weller, K.E.; Greene, G.W.; Redding, C.A.; Paiva, A.L.; Lofgren, I.; Nash, J.T.; Kobayashi, H. Development and Validation of Green Eating Behaviors, Stage of Change, Decisional Balance, and Self-Efficacy Scales in College Students. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2014, 46, 324–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Larson, N.I.; Perry, C.L.; Story, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Food Preparation by Young Adults Is Associated with Better Diet Quality. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2006, 106, 2001–2007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Monroe, J.T.; Lofgren, I.E.; Sartini, B.L.; Greene, G.W. The Green Eating Project: Web-based intervention to promote environmentally conscious eating behaviours in US university students. Public Health Nutr. 2015, 18, 2368–2378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Sanchez-Sabate, R.; Sabaté, J. Consumer Attitudes Towards Environmental Concerns of Meat Consumption: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Kemper, J.A. Motivations, barriers, and strategies for meat reduction at different family lifecycle stages. Appetite 2020, 150, 104644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Lentz, G.; Connelly, S.; Mirosa, M.; Jowett, T. Gauging attitudes and behaviours: Meat consumption and potential reduction. Appetite 2018, 127, 230–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Mullee, A.; Vermeire, L.; Vanaelst, B.; Mullie, P.; Deriemaeker, P.; Leenaert, T.; De Henauw, S.; Dunne, A.; Gunter, M.J.; Clarys, P.; et al. Vegetarianism and meat consumption: A comparison of attitudes and beliefs between vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, and omnivorous subjects in Belgium. Appetite 2017, 114, 299–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Barosh, L.; Friel, S.; Engelhardt, K.; Chan, L. The cost of a healthy and sustainable diet—Who can afford it? Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 2014, 38, 7–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Reynolds, C.J.; Horgan, G.W.; Whybrow, S.; Macdiarmid, J.I. Healthy and sustainable diets that meet greenhouse gas emission reduction targets and are affordable for different income groups in the UK. Public Health Nutr. 2019, 22, 1503–1517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Verly-Jr, E.; de Carvalho, A.M.; Marchioni, D.M.L.; Darmon, N. The cost of eating more sustainable diets: A nutritional and environmental diet optimisation study. Glob. Public Health 2021, 17, 1073–1086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Thorpe, M.G.; Kestin, M.; Riddell, L.J.; Keast, R.S.J.; McNaughton, S.A. Diet quality in young adults and its association with food-related behaviours. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 17, 1767–1775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Hanson, A.J.; Kattelmann, K.K.; McCormack, L.A.; Zhou, W.; Brown, O.N.; Horacek, T.M.; Shelnutt, K.P.; Kidd, T.; Opoku-Acheampong, A.; Franzen-Castle, L.D.; et al. Cooking and Meal Planning as Predictors of Fruit and Vegetable Intake and BMI in First-Year College Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Hartmann, C.; Dohle, S.; Siegrist, M. Importance of cooking skills for balanced food choices. Appetite 2013, 65, 125–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Bramston, V.; Rouf, A.; Allman-Farinelli, M. The Development of Cooking Videos to Encourage Calcium Intake in Young Adults. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Utter, J.; Larson, N.; Laska, M.N.; Winkler, M.; Neumark-Sztainer, D. Self-Perceived Cooking Skills in Emerging Adulthood Predict Better Dietary Behaviors and Intake 10 Years Later: A Longitudinal Study. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2018, 50, 494–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Hingle, M.; Yoon, D.; Fowler, J.; Kobourov, S.; Schneider, M.L.; Falk, D.; Burd, R. Collection and visualization of dietary behavior and reasons for eating using Twitter. J. Med. Internet Res. 2013, 15, e125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Brown, O.N.; O’Connor, L.E.; Savaiano, D. Mobile MyPlate: A Pilot Study Using Text Messaging to Provide Nutrition Education and Promote Better Dietary Choices in College Students. J. Am. Coll. Health 2014, 62, 320–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Maher, C.A.; Lewis, L.K.; Ferrar, K.; Marshall, S.; De Bourdeaudhuij, I.; Vandelanotte, C. Are health behavior change interventions that use online social networks effective? A systematic review. J. Med. Internet Res. 2014, 16, e40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Williams, G.; Hamm, M.P.; Shulhan, J.; Vandermeer, B.; Hartling, L. Social media interventions for diet and exercise behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open 2014, 4, e003926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Whatnall, M.C.; Hutchesson, M.J.; Sharkey, T.; Haslam, R.L.; Bezzina, A.; Collins, C.E.; Tzelepis, F.; Ashton, L.M. Recruiting and retaining young adults: What can we learn from behavioural interventions targeting nutrition, physical activity and/or obesity? A systematic review of the literature. Public Health Nutr. 2021, 24, 5686–5703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Participants’ inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 1. Participants’ inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Inclusion CriteriaExclusion Criteria
○
18–25 years old
○
Residing in Australia (at least two months)
○
Access to a Facebook account or willingness to create an account
○
No previously known medical conditions
○
Good command of English
○
Participants presenting with known food allergies, intolerances, eating disorder, and/or medical conditions such as Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, Crohn’s disease, or Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
○
Participants reporting pregnancy or plan for pregnancy in the study period
○
Participants following vegetarian or vegan diets
Table
Table 2. The Green Hub program module content.
Table 2. The Green Hub program module content.
ModuleTitleBehavioural Objectives
Week 1A sustainable and healthy diet, what does this mean?
  • Increase awareness of sustainable and healthy diets concepts
Week 2Eat local and seasonal
  • Understand the importance and benefits of shopping local
  • Increase consumption of local and seasonal
Week 3Alternatives to meat: plant-based protein sources
  • Understand protein content in plant-based food options
  • Swap between animal-sourced to plant-sourced foods
Week 4Reducing food waste “Waste no More”
  • Reduce food waste practices through shopping practices, planned cooking, and eating behaviours
Table
Table 3. Socio-demographic characteristics of participants at baseline (Total N = 15).
Table 3. Socio-demographic characteristics of participants at baseline (Total N = 15).
CharacteristicsNProportion (%)
Age<20426.7
20–251173.3
GenderFemale1386.7
Male213.3
StudentYes1386.7
No213.3
Country of birthAustralia853.3
Other746.7
Relationship statusIn a relationship/De facto853.4
Not in a relationship746.7
EmploymentFull-time213.3
Part-time/casual960
Unemployed16.7
Education levelCompleted year 12960
University undergraduate degree640
N = Total number of participants who completed the survey.
Table
Table 4. Facebook insights.
Table 4. Facebook insights.
Facebook Insights Seen by *Likes *Comments *Answers to Quizzes †Number of
Participants Trying Recipes
Week 1 (n = 19)18.52.91144
Week 2 (n = 18)15.32.82.2146
Week 3 (n = 18)16.531.57.57
Week 4 (n = 17) 13.72.50.847
(n) total number of participants per week. (*) average number per post. (†) average number of answers provided on quizzes.
Table
Table 5. Participants feedback regarding cooking challenges.
Table 5. Participants feedback regarding cooking challenges.
ParticipantQuotes
P1“Can definitely say that the banana bread was a hit”
P2“Hi Nadine! Today I made the veggie tacos for lunch, and they were delicious. I’m really enjoying the weekly recipes and can’t wait to see next weeks!”
P3“It turned out so well for me!! Delicious.”
P4“I am OBSESSED! I didn’t expect to love it as much as I do. I honestly don’t leap at the thought of mushrooms but could not even tell they were in the Bolognese. I will definitely be adding this into my weekly meal plans!”
P4“I really enjoyed the recipe, especially as a nice alternative to what I’d normally eat for breakfast.”
Table
Table 6. Participants’ likelihood to take actions that help reduce the environmental impact of foods in the next 6 months.
Table 6. Participants’ likelihood to take actions that help reduce the environmental impact of foods in the next 6 months.
Actions to Reduce the Environmental Impact of FoodsPercentage Likelihood (%)Percentage Change
Pre-InterventionPost-Intervention
Increase plant-based food intake86.7100+13.3
Reduce red meat intake6070+10
Reduce the amount of meat in a dish while increasing the amount of plant-based food73.490+16.6
Introduce one plant-rich day per week (e.g., meatless Monday)8090+10
Reduce highly processed/fast food intake80100+20
Reduce food wastage (e.g., use leftovers, store food correctly)93.3100+6.7
Eat locally grown food73.4100+26.6
Eat seasonal produce83.3100+16.7
% represents proportions for very/fairly likelihood.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ghammachi, N.; Mihrshahi, S.; Ronto, R. Web-Based Experiential Nutrition Education Intervention “The Green Hub” to Promote Sustainable and Healthy Diets among Young Adults in Australia. Sustainability 2022, 14, 15207. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215207

AMA Style

Ghammachi N, Mihrshahi S, Ronto R. Web-Based Experiential Nutrition Education Intervention “The Green Hub” to Promote Sustainable and Healthy Diets among Young Adults in Australia. Sustainability. 2022; 14(22):15207. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215207

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ghammachi, Nadine, Seema Mihrshahi, and Rimante Ronto. 2022. "Web-Based Experiential Nutrition Education Intervention “The Green Hub” to Promote Sustainable and Healthy Diets among Young Adults in Australia" Sustainability 14, no. 22: 15207. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215207

APA Style

Ghammachi, N., Mihrshahi, S., & Ronto, R. (2022). Web-Based Experiential Nutrition Education Intervention “The Green Hub” to Promote Sustainable and Healthy Diets among Young Adults in Australia. Sustainability, 14(22), 15207. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215207

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop