Exploring Structural Relationships in Attracting and Retaining International Students in STEM for Sustainable Development of Higher Education
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Interpretation of Push–Pull and Spatial Theory
2.2. Institutional Mediation
2.3. Factors Impacting Satisfaction
3. Method
3.1. Instruments
3.2. A Testing Model for SEM
3.3. Research Targets and Samples
3.4. Data Transformation and Statistical Analyses
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics of Push Factors, Institutional Mediation, and Satisfaction
4.2. Construct of Measurement
4.3. Testing of the Structural Equational Model
4.4. Testing of Effect of Mediation
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- OECD. Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- European Migration Network. Attracting and Retaining International Students in the EU; European Migration Network: Brussels, Belgium, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Rumbley, L.E.; Altbach, P.G. The local and the global in higher education internationalization. In Global and Local Internationalization; Rumbley, L.E., Altbach, P., Eds.; Sense: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 7–13. [Google Scholar]
- Aoun, J.E. Robot-Proofs: Higher Education in the Age of Artificial Intelligence; MIT Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Schaffhauser, D. STEM Majors on Rise Even as College Enrollment Shrinks; Campus Technology: Woodland Hills, CA, USA, 2018; Available online: https://campustechnology.com/Articles/2018/01/10/STEM-Majors-on-Rise-even-as-College-Enrollment-Shrinks.aspx?admgarea=new&Page=1 (accessed on 20 December 2021).
- Jacobs, M. Labour’s Green New Deal Is among the Most Radical in the World—But Can It Be Done by 2030? The Conversation. 2019. Available online: https://theconversation.com/labours-green-new-deal-is-among-the-most-radical-in-theworld-but-can-it-be-done-by-2030-123982 (accessed on 20 December 2021).
- Koris, R.; Mato-Díaz, F.J.; Hernández-Nanclares, N. From real to virtual mobility: Erasmus students’ transition to online learning amid the COVID-19 crisis. Eur. Educ. Res. J. 2021, 20, 463–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, D.F.; Chou, W.C. Detecting the institutional mediation of push–pull factors on international students’ satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mok, K.H.; Xiong, W.; Ke, G.; Cheung, O.J.W. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on international higher education and student mobility: Student perspectives from mainland China and Hong Kong. Int. J. Educ. Res. 2021, 105, 101718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xia, F.; Chang, D.-F. Forecasting student mobility flows in higher education: A case study in China. ICIC Express Lett. Part B Appl. 2021, 12, 525–532. [Google Scholar]
- Stewart, W.H. Seoul destination: A mixed-methods study on the pull factors of inbound exchange students at a Korean university. Forum Int. Res. Educ. 2020, 6, 58–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik, P.; Grote, J. Attracting and Retaining International Students in Germany: Study by the German National Contact Point for the European Migration Network (EMN); Working Paper 85 of the Research Centre of the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees; Federal Office for Migration and Refugees: Nuremberg, Germany, 2019; Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332530519_Attracting_and_retaining_international_students_in_Germany_Study_by_the_German_National_Contact_Point_for_the_European_Migration_Network_EMN (accessed on 20 December 2021).
- Kondakci, Y. Student mobility reviewed: Attraction and satisfaction of international students in Turkey. High. Educ. 2011, 62, 573–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trow, M. Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education. ERIC, ED 091983. 1973. Available online: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED091983.pdf (accessed on 12 November 2021).
- Chang, D.F. Effects of higher education expansion on gender parity: A 65-year trajectory in Taiwan. High. Educ. 2018, 76, 449–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Interior. The Main Directory of Dynamic Query Statistics. 2018. Available online: http://statis.moi.gov.tw/micst/stmain.jsp?sys=100 (accessed on 10 November 2021).
- Chang, D.F. Implementing internationalization policy in higher education explained by regulatory control in neoliberal times. Asia Pac. Educ. Rev. 2015, 16, 603–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- OECD. The State of Higher Education: One Year in to the COVID-19 Pandemic; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Handa, N. Education for Sustainability through Internationalization, Palgrave Studies in Global Citizenship Education and Democracy. 2018. Available online: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F978-1-137-50297-1_1 (accessed on 22 November 2021).
- The Department of Education, Skills and Employment, Australian Government. Why Is STEM Important? Available online: https://www.dese.gov.au/australian-curriculum/national-stem-education-resources-toolkit/introductory-material/why-stem-important (accessed on 17 December 2021).
- Bottia, M.C.; Stearns, E.; Mickelson, R.K.; Moller, S. Boosting the numbers of STEM majors? The role of high schools with a STEM program. Sci. Educ. 2018, 102, 85–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Means, B.; Wang, H.; Young, V.; Peters, V.L.; Lynch, S.J. STEM-focused high schools as a strategy for enhancing readiness for postsecondary STEM programs. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 2016, 53, 709–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thibaut, L.; Ceuppens, S.; De Loof, H.; De Meester, J.; Goovaerts, L.; Struyf, A.; Boeve-de Pauw, J.; Dehaene, W.; Deprez, J.; De Cock, M.; et al. Integrated STEM education: A systematic review of instructional practices in secondary education. Eur. J. STEM Educ. 2018, 3, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MOE. Higher Education Sprout Project. 2021. Available online: https://sprout.moe.edu.tw/SproutWeb/Project/DocDownload (accessed on 10 December 2021).
- MOE. Education in Taiwan. 2021. Available online: https://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/ebook/Education_in_Taiwan/2021-2022_Education_in_Taiwan.pdf (accessed on 15 December 2021).
- MOE. School Basic Information-International Students Enrolled in Colleges and Universities. 2021. Available online: https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ED4500/News_Content.aspx?n=5A930C32CC6C3818&sms=91B3AAE8C6388B96&s=B7F6EA80CA2F63EE (accessed on 16 December 2021).
- Ravenstein, E.G. The laws of migration (part 1). J. R. Stat. Soc. 1985, 48, 167–227. [Google Scholar]
- Ravenstein, E.G. The laws of migration (part 2). J. R. Stat. Soc. 1989, 52, 241–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, E. A theory of migration. Demography 1966, 3, 47–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Souto-Otero, M.; Huisman, J.; Beerkens, M.; de Wit, H.; Vujić, S. Barriers to international student mobility: Evidence from the Erasmus program. Educ. Res. 2013, 41, 70–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Findlay, A.M.; King, R.; Geddes, A.; Smith, F.M.; Geddes, A.; Skeldon, R. World class? An investigation of globalization, difference and international student mobility. Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. 2012, 37, 118–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hauschildt, K.; Gwosć, C.; Netz, N.; Mishra, S. Social and Economic Conditions of Student Life in Europe: Synopsis of Indicators/Eurostudent-V, 2012–2015; Bertelsmann Verlag: Bielefeld, Germany, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Mazzarol, T.; Soutar, G.N. Push-Pull Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice; CEMI Discussion Paper Series, DP 0105; Centre for Entrepreneurial Management and Innovation: Perth, Australia, 2001; Available online: http://www.cemi.com.au/sites/all/publications/CEMI%20DP0105%20Mazzarol%20and%20Soutar%202001.pdf (accessed on 22 June 2021).
- Larsen, M.A. Internationalization of Higher Education: An Analysis through Spatial, Network, and Mobility Theories; Palgrave Macmillan: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Massey, D. For Space; Sage: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Soja, E.W. Third Space: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and- Imagined Places; Blackwell: Oxford, UK, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Soja, E.W. Taking space personally. In The Spatial Turn: Interdisciplinary Perspective; Warf, B., Arias, S., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2009; pp. 11–34. [Google Scholar]
- Knight, J. Higher Education in Turmoil: The Changing World of Internationalization; Sage Publishers: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Goetsch, D.L.; Davis, S.B. Quality Management for Organizational Excellence: Introduction to Total Quality Management, 8th ed.; Prentice Hall: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Gao, Y. Toward a set of internationally applicable indicators for measuring university internationalization performance. J. Stud. Int. Educ. 2015, 19, 182–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Wit, H. The different faces and phases of internationalization of higher education. In The Forefront of International Higher Education: A Festschrift in Honor of Philip G. Altbach; Maldonado-Maldonado, A., Bassett, R.M., Eds.; Higher Education Dynamics 42; Springer: Heidelberg, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 89–99. [Google Scholar]
- Salimi, A. Social-emotional loneliness and life satisfaction. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2011, 29, 292–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yalçun, I. Social support and optimism as predictors of life satisfaction of college students. Int. J. Adv. Couns. 2011, 33, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, J.G.; Yin, J.K. Asian international students’ adjustment: Issues and program suggestions. Coll. Stud. J. 1997, 31, 473–480. [Google Scholar]
- Russell, J.; Rosenthal, D.; Thomson, G. The international student experience: Three styles of adaption. High. Educ. 2010, 60, 235–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandhu, D.S. An examination of the psychological needs of the international students: Implications for counselling and psychotherapy. Int. J. Adv. Couns. 1994, 17, 229–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sawir, E.; Marginson, S.; Deumert, A.; Nyland, C.; Ramia, G. Loneliness and international students: An Australian study. J. Stud. Int. Educ. 2008, 12, 148–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wen, W.; Hu, D.; Hao, J. International students’ experiences in China: Does the planned reverse mobility work? Int. J. Educ. Dev. 2018, 61, 204–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maringe, F. The meanings of globalization and internationalization in HE: Findings from a world survey. In Globalization and Internationalization in Higher Education: Theoretical, Strategic and Management Perspectives; Maringe, F., Foskett, N., Eds.; Continuum: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 17–34. [Google Scholar]
- Baas, M. The language of migration: The education industry versus the migration industry. People Place 2007, 15, 49–60. [Google Scholar]
- Altbach, P.G.; Knight, J. The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. J. Stud. Int. Educ. 2007, 11, 290–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Blanthorne, C.; Jones-Faremer, L.A.; Almer, E.D. Why you should consider SEM: A guide getting started. Adv. Account. Behav. Res. 2006, 9, 179–207. [Google Scholar]
- Bentler, P.M. Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychol. Bull. 1990, 107, 238–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Walker, S.L.; Fraser, B.J. Development and validation of an instrument for assessing distance education environments in higher education: The distance education learning environments survey (DELES). Learn. Environ. Res. 2005, 8, 308–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loehlin, J.C. Latent Variable Models: An. Introduction to Factor, Path, and Structural Equation Analysis, 4th ed.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associate: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Schumacker, R.E.; Lomax, R.G. A Beginner’s Guide to Structural Equation Modeling; Lawrence Erlbaum Associate: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Byrne, B.M. Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, L.T.; Bentler, P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Modeling Multidiscip. J. 1999, 6, 1–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mackinnon, D.P.; Lockwood, C.M.; Hoffman, J.M.; West, S.G.; Sheets, V. A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychol. Methods 2002, 7, 83–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barron, R.M.; Kenny, D.A. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1986, 51, 1173–1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobel, M.E. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociol. Methodol. 1982, 13, 290–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shrout, P.E.; Bolger, N. Mediation in experimental and non-experimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychol. Methods 2002, 7, 422–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Efron, B. Better bootstrap confidence intervals. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 1987, 82, 171–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Efron, B.; Tibshirani, R.J. An Introduction to the Bootstrap; Chapman and Hall: New York, NY, USA, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Jung, K.; Lee, J.; Gupta, V.; Cho, G. Comparison of bootstrap confidence interval methods for GSCA using a Monte Carlo simulation. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 2215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling; Guilford: New York, NY, USA, 1988. [Google Scholar]
Domains/Observed Items | Definitions of Observed Items |
---|---|
Push factors/ | |
PS1: | It is difficult to find employment opportunities in my country |
PS2: | I have experienced poor living conditions in my country |
PS3: | For family reasons, I have decided to study abroad |
PS4: | In my country, I have political reasons to study abroad |
Institutional mediation/ | |
Institutional leadership (IL) | |
IL1: | I experienced that my university has strong leadership for student affairs |
IL2: | My university’s policy is indifferent to the treatment of international students |
IL3: | I experienced that my university has a collegial decision-making mechanism |
International strategies (IS) | |
IS1: | I experienced a clear international strategy on campus |
IS2: | My university provides various learning opportunities or funding for international students |
IS3: | My university encourages recruitment of international students |
IS4: | My university encourages international students to attend conferences abroad and provides funding support |
Satisfaction/ | |
Learning (S1): | I am satisfied with my learning process |
Environment (S2): | I am satisfied with my campus environment |
Academic_friendly (S3) | I am satisfied with the academic program that I participated in |
Migration_policy (S4): | I am satisfied with the migration policy in the destination country |
Classification | Frequency | Percent | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 270 | 55.7 |
Female | 215 | 44.3 | |
Origin | Asia | 373 | 76.9 |
Oceania | 13 | 2.7 | |
Africa | 16 | 3.3 | |
Europe | 14 | 2.9 | |
America | 42 | 8.7 | |
China | 27 | 5.6 | |
Degree-seeking | Bachelor’s | 135 | 27.8 |
Master’s | 177 | 36.5 | |
Doctoral | 173 | 35.7 |
Observed Items | N | Mean | Std. D. | Skewness | Kurtosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Push factors | |||||
PS1 | 485 | 2.79 | 1.106 | 0.106 | −0.687 |
PS2 | 485 | 3.64 | 1.112 | −0.574 | −0.335 |
PS3 | 485 | 2.81 | 1.148 | 0.088 | −0.810 |
PS4 | 485 | 2.58 | 1.108 | 0.310 | −0.552 |
Institutional mediation | |||||
IL1 | 485 | 3.93 | 0.834 | −0.622 | 0.534 |
IL2 | 485 | 3.69 | 0.815 | 0.043 | −0.443 |
IL3 | 485 | 3.63 | 0.856 | −0.362 | 0.280 |
IS1 | 485 | 3.87 | 0.902 | −0.711 | 0.334 |
IS2 | 485 | 3.94 | 0.962 | −0.897 | 0.552 |
IS3 | 485 | 4.03 | 0.783 | −0.781 | 1.159 |
IS4 | 485 | 3.67 | 0.995 | −0.565 | 0.061 |
Satisfaction | |||||
Learning | 485 | 3.79 | 0.831 | −0.305 | −0.010 |
Environment | 485 | 3.85 | 0.824 | −0.301 | −0.255 |
Academic_friendly | 485 | 2.93 | 1.152 | −0.013 | −0.955 |
Migration_policy | 485 | 4.01 | 0.827 | −0.584 | 0.197 |
Observed Items | PS1 | PS2 | PS3 | PS4 | IL1 | IL2 | IL3 | IS1 | IS2 | IS3 | IS4 | L. | E. | A. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PS1 | 1.000 | |||||||||||||
PS2 | 0.405 | |||||||||||||
PS3 | 0.250 | 0.273 | ||||||||||||
PS4 | 0.292 | 0.311 | 0.414 | |||||||||||
IL1 | −0.020 | 0.189 | 0.047 | 0.072 | ||||||||||
IL2 | 0.011 | 0.141 | 0.009 | −0.009 | 0.331 | |||||||||
IL3 | 0.080 | 0.214 | 0.110 | 0.121 | 0.471 | 0.403 | ||||||||
IS1 | 0.048 | 0.178 | 0.098 | 0.075 | 0.639 | 0.348 | 0.543 | |||||||
IS2 | 0.067 | 0.124 | 0.136 | 0.071 | 0.415 | 0.332 | 0.474 | 0.528 | ||||||
IS3 | 0.046 | 0.165 | 0.083 | 0.070 | 0.421 | 0.303 | 0.433 | 0.503 | 0.507 | |||||
IS4 | 0.091 | 0.165 | 0.105 | 0.113 | 0.456 | 0.295 | 0.499 | 0.489 | 0.512 | 0.504 | ||||
Learning | −0.095 | 0.105 | 0.022 | 0.075 | 0.435 | 0.246 | 0.381 | 0.424 | 0.329 | 0.318 | 0.343 | |||
Environment | −0.086 | 0.208 | 0.031 | 0.064 | 0.379 | 0.315 | 0.427 | 0.433 | 0.344 | 0.311 | 0.347 | 0.634 | ||
Academic_friendly | 0.105 | 0.099 | 0.186 | 0.132 | −0.072 | −0.048 | −0.035 | 0.005 | −0.060 | −0.073 | 0.019 | −0.141 | −0.044 | |
Migration_policy | 0.006 | 0.175 | 0.058 | 0.134 | 0.267 | 0.211 | 0.388 | 0.350 | 0.297 | 0.309 | 0.279 | 0.287 | 0.350 | −0.047 |
Observed Items | Scale Mean If Item Is Deleted | Scale Variance If Item Is Deleted | Corrected Item-Total Correlation | Squared Multiple Correlation | Cronbach’s Alpha If Item Is Deleted |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PS1 | 50.38 | 48.099 | 0.192 | 0.252 | 0.795 |
PS2 | 49.53 | 45.134 | 0.395 | 0.292 | 0.777 |
PS3 | 50.36 | 46.648 | 0.274 | 0.230 | 0.788 |
PS4 | 50.58 | 46.653 | 0.290 | 0.250 | 0.786 |
IL1 | 49.24 | 45.622 | 0.528 | 0.482 | 0.767 |
IL2 | 49.47 | 47.469 | 0.368 | 0.227 | 0.778 |
IL3 | 49.54 | 44.617 | 0.605 | 0.460 | 0.761 |
IS1 | 49.29 | 44.018 | 0.621 | 0.562 | 0.759 |
IS2 | 49.22 | 44.446 | 0.538 | 0.430 | 0.764 |
IS3 | 49.14 | 46.159 | 0.517 | 0.398 | 0.769 |
IS4 | 49.50 | 43.854 | 0.563 | 0.426 | 0.762 |
Learning | 49.38 | 46.760 | 0.424 | 0.470 | 0.775 |
Environment | 49.31 | 46.220 | 0.479 | 0.491 | 0.771 |
Academic_friendly | 50.24 | 50.542 | 0.024 | 0.087 | 0.811 |
Migration_policy | 49.16 | 47.057 | 0.399 | 0.229 | 0.776 |
Hypotheses | Standardized | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
H1: Institutional mediation | ← | Push factors | 0.232 | * |
H2: Satisfaction | ← | Push factors | −0.030 | - |
H3: Satisfaction | ← | Institutional mediation | 0.732 | * |
H4: Satisfaction ← Institutional mediation | ← | Push factors | 0.169 | * |
Latent Variables | Correlation | Push Factors | Satisfaction |
---|---|---|---|
Push factors | Pearson correlation | 1 | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | |||
Satisfaction | Pearson correlation | 0.105 * | |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.020 | ||
Institutional mediation | Pearson correlation | 0.184 ** | 0.596 ** |
Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Effects | Estimated | PC/BC p-Value | 95% Confidence Interval | |
---|---|---|---|---|
PC | BC | |||
Indirect effect Push factors → Institutional mediation → Satisfaction | 0.170 | 0.006/0.009 | 0.057–0.277 | 0.049–0.271 |
Direct effect Institutional mediation → Satisfaction Push factors → Satisfaction | 0.732 | 0.001/0.001 | 0.624–0.827 | 0.623–0.826 |
−0.030 | 0.659/0.681 | −0.172–0.128 | −0.170–0.130 | |
Total effect | 0.14 | 0.138/0.154 | −0.058–0.334 | −0.061–0.332 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Chang, D.-F.; Lee, K.-Y.; Tseng, C.-W. Exploring Structural Relationships in Attracting and Retaining International Students in STEM for Sustainable Development of Higher Education. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031267
Chang D-F, Lee K-Y, Tseng C-W. Exploring Structural Relationships in Attracting and Retaining International Students in STEM for Sustainable Development of Higher Education. Sustainability. 2022; 14(3):1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031267
Chicago/Turabian StyleChang, Dian-Fu, Kuo-Yin Lee, and Chun-Wen Tseng. 2022. "Exploring Structural Relationships in Attracting and Retaining International Students in STEM for Sustainable Development of Higher Education" Sustainability 14, no. 3: 1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031267