Feasibility Study of Low-Environmental-Load Methods for Treating High-Water-Content Waste Dredged Clay (WDC)—A Case Study of WDC Treatment at Kumamoto Prefecture Ohkirihata Reservoir in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Test Procedure
2.1. On-Site Sediment of WDC
2.2. Preparation of Samples for Testing
2.3. Quantitative Assessment of Sample Strength through Cone Index Test
3. Effect of OPC and DF Content on the Stabilization of WDC
4. Application of a Simple Vertical Dewatering Device for on-Site Treatment of WDC
4.1. On-Site Dewatering Test
4.2. Effectiveness of Dewatering Test
5. Evaluation of Improvement Effect of Solidifier-Stabilized Dewatered Clay (WDC)
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- In order to meet the minimum construction standard strength (qc = 200 kN/m2), it is necessary to use a higher dosage of DF than OPC to stabilize WDC at its natural water content. However, since cement accounts for only 30% of DF, it can be concluded that DF is more environmentally friendly in terms of reducing cement use. In addition, reducing the amount of DF used can be achieved through dehydration.
- (2)
- Compared to the traditional sun-drying method, a simple on-site vertical dehydration method can reduce the water content of WDC to below the liquid limit within a week. After one month, the average water content of WDC decreases by approximately 35–38% below the liquid limit. Whether it is dehydrated for a week or a month, woven polyester achieved a better dehydration effect than chemical polymer mixed ropes.
- (3)
- Based on the empirical formula (qc-C) of the cone index and solidifying agent dosage, the dosage of DF needed to stabilize WDC at the minimum construction standard strength (qc = 200 kN/m2) decreases by 37–58% as the water content drops from its natural state to the liquid limit. Compared to the 22–50% reduction in OPC dosage, it can be concluded that reducing the water content is more beneficial for stabilizing WDC with DF. Moreover, the significant decrease in DF dosage further reduces CO2 emissions and production costs.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Japan Construction Machinery and Construction Association (JCMA). Separation, Classification, Effective Use of Dredged Soil and Tsunami Deposits, and Disposal Volume Reduction (In Japanese). Available online: https://jcmanet.or.jp/bunken/kikanshi/2015/01/015.pdf (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- Bian, X.; Zeng, L.; Deng, Y.; Li, X. The Role of Superabsorbent Polymer on Strength and Microstructure Development in Cemented Dredged Clay with High Water Content. Polymers 2018, 10, 1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Siham, K.; Fabrice, B.; Edine, A.N.; Patrick, D. Marine dredged sediments as new materials resource for road construction. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 919–928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Varsha, B.; Moghal, A.A.B.; Rehman, A.U.; Chittoori, B.C.S. Shear, Consolidation Characteristics and Carbon Footprint Analysis of Clayey Soil Blended with Calcium Lignosulphonate and Granite Sand for Earthen Dam Application. Sustainability 2023, 15, 6117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satoh, T. Application of pneumatic flow mixing method Central Japan International Airport construction. J. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. 2003, 749, 33–47. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Satoh, T.; Tsuchida, T.; Mitsukuri, K.; Hong, Z. Field placing test of lightweight treated soil under seawater in Kumamoto port. Soils Found. 2001, 41, 145–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamnongpipatkul, P.; Dechasakulsom, M.; Sukolrat, J. Application of air-foam stabilized soil for bridge-embankment transition zone in Thailand. In Proceedings of the GeoHuman International Conference 2009, Hunan, China, 3–6 August 2009; Geotechnical Special Publication: Changsha, China, 2009; pp. 181–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ifediniru, C.; Ekeocha, N.E. Performance of cement-stabilized weak subgrade for highway embankment construction in Southeast Nigeria. Int. J. Geo-Eng. 2022, 13, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kostarelos, K.; Reale, D.; Dermatas, D.; Rao, E.; Moon, D.H. Optimum Dose of Lime and Fly Ash for Treatment of Hexavalent Chromium–Contaminated Soil. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2006, 6, 171–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.F.; Zhang, S.Y.; Hu, Z.Y.; Yu, G.; Pei, C.H.; Sa, R.N. Identification of connection units with high GHG emissions for low-carbon product structure design. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 27, 118–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, M.B.; Saidur, R.; Hossain, M.S. A review on emission analysis in cement industries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15, 2252–2261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Du, Y.; Yi, Q.; Li, C.; Liao, L. Life cycle oriented low-carbon operation models of machinery manufacturing industry. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 91, 145–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, T.; Shen, L.; Shen, M.; Chen, F.; Liu, L.; Gao, L. Analysis on differences of carbon dioxide emission from cement production and their major determinants. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 103, 160–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verástegui-Flores, R.D.; Di Emidio, G. Impact of sulfate attack on mechanical properties and hydraulic conductivity of a cement-admixed clay. Appl. Clay Sci. 2014, 101, 490–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tastan, E.O.; Edil, T.B.; Benson, C.H.; Aydilek, A.H. Stabilization of organic soils with fly ash. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 2011, 137, 819–833. Available online: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%29GT.1943-5606.0000502 (accessed on 30 March 2023). [CrossRef]
- Alterary, S.S.; Marei, N.H. Fly ash properties, characterization, and applications: A review. J. King Saud. Univ. Sci. 2021, 33, 101536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chindaprasirt, P.; Homwuttiwong, S.; Sirivivatnanon, V. Influence of fly ash fineness on strength, drying shrinkage and sulfate resistance of blended cement mortar. Cement Concrete Res. 2004, 34, 1087–1092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, S.P.; Tripathy, D.P.; Ranjith, P.G. Performance evaluation of cement stabilized fly ash–GBFS mixes as a highway con-struction material. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 1331–1337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, D.; Jiang, G.L.; Liao, D.; Hu, Y.F.; Liu, X.F. Influence of cement-fly ash-gravel pile-supported approach embankment on abutment piles in soft ground. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2018, 10, 977–985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, J.; Mishra, D.K.; Wu, C.; Leung, C.K. Very high volume fly ash green concrete for applications in India. Waste Manag. Res. 2018, 36, 520–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Omine, K.; Li, C.; Shi, S.; Flemmy, S.O. Improvement effects of treating with calcined oyster shell and carbonized cow dung compost on clay with high water content. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2022, 17, e01654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seo, J.H.; Park, S.M.; Yang, B.J.; Jang, J.G. Calcined oyster shell powder as an expansive additive in cement mortar. Materials 2019, 12, 1322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.D.; Ahn, J.W.; Nam, G. Environmental benign synthesis, characterization and mechanism studies of green calcium hydroxide nano-plates derived from waste oyster shells. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 223, 947–951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wei, Y.; Zhou, X.; Zhou, L.; Liu, C.; Liu, J. Electro-dewatering of sewage sludge: Effect of near-anode sludge modification with different dosages of calcium oxide. Environ. Res. 2020, 186, 109487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mahmoud, A.; Hoadley, A.F.; Citeau, M.; Sorbet, J.M.; Olivier, G.; Vaxelaire, J.; Olivier, J. A comparative study of electro-dewatering process performance for activated and digested wastewater sludge. Water Res. 2018, 129, 66–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goda, K.; Campbell, G.; Hulme, L.; Ismael, B.; Ke, L.; Marsh, R.; Sammonds, P.; So, E.; Okumura, Y.; Kishi, N.; et al. The 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes: Cascading geological hazards and compounding risks. Front. Built Environ. 2016, 2, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frihy, O.; Moufaddal, W.; Deabes, E.; Helmy, E.E.D. Economic evaluation of using marine dredged material for erosion control along the northeast coast of the Nile Delta, Egypt. Arab. J. Geosci. 2016, 9, 637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- JIS A 1203; Test Method for Water Content of Soils. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- JIS A 1226; Test Method for Ignition Loss of Soils. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- Santisteban, J.I.; Mediavilla, R.; Lopez-Pamo, E.; Dabrio, C.J.; Zapata, M.; Garcia, M.; Castano, S.; Martínez-Alfaro, P.E. Loss on ignition: A qualitative or quantitative method for organic matter and carbonate mineral content in sediments. J. Paleolimnol. 2004, 32, 287–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, S.; Stefanakis, A.I. Sustainable dewatering of industrial sludges in sludge treatment reed beds: Experiences from pilot and full-scale studies under different climates. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aitkenhead, M.J.; Donnelly, D.; Sutherland, L.; Miller, D.G.; Coull, M.C.; Black, H.I.J. Predicting Scottish topsoil organic matter content from colour and environmental factors. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2015, 66, 112–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehta, B.; Sachan, A. Effect of Mineralogical Properties of Expansive Soil on Its Mechanical Behavior. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2017, 35, 2923–2934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- JIS A 1205; Test Method for Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit of Soils. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- JGS 0811; Practice for Making and Curing Compacted Stabilized Soil Specimens Using a Rammer. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- JIS A 1210; Test Method for Soil Compaction Using a Rammer. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- JIS A 1228; Test Method for Cone Index of Compacted Soils. Japanese Industrial Standard Association: Tokyo, Japan; The Japanese Geotechnical Society: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. (In Japanese)
- Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT). Stabilized Clay Utilization Standards (In Japanese). Available online: https://www.mlit.go.jp/tec/kankyou/hasseido/060810kijyun.pdf (accessed on 20 March 2023).
- Rasheed, R.M.; Moghal, A.A.B. Critical appraisal of the behavioral geo-mechanisms of peats/organic soils. Arab. J. Geosci. 2022, 15, 1123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghosh, A.; Subbarao, C. Strength Characteristics of Class F Fly Ash Modified with Lime and Gypsum. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. 2007, 133, 757–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horpibulsuk, S.; Liu, M.D.; Liyanapathirana, D.S.; Suebsuk, J. Behavior of cemented clay simulated via the theoretical framework of the Structured Cam Clay model. Comput. Geotech. 2010, 37, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, D.X.; Edine, A.N.; Rachid, Z. Strength and deformation properties of Dunkirk marine sediments solidified with cement, lime and fly ash. Eng. Geol. 2013, 166, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Furlan, A.P.; Razakamanantsoa, A.; Ranaivomanana, H.; Amiri, O.; Levacher, D.; Deneele, D. Effect of Fly Ash on microstructural and resistance characteristics of dredged sediment stabilized with lime and cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 272, 121637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silitonga, E.; Levacher, D.; Mezazigh, S. Utilization of fly ash for stabilization of marine dredged sediment. Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 2010, 14, 253–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Omine, K.; Flemmy, S.O.; Li, C. The Liquid Limit as a Factor in Assessing the Improvement of Stabilized Cement-Based Highwater Content Clayey Sediments. Materials 2022, 15, 7240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Omine, K.; Flemmy, S.O. Evaluation of the improvement effect of cement-stabilized clays with different solidifying agent addition and water content. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2022, 24, 2291–2302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horpibulsuk, S.; Yangsukkaseam, N.; Chinkulkijniwat, A.; Du, Y.J. Compressibility and permeability of Bangkok clay compared with kaolinite and bentonite. Appl. Clay Sci. 2011, 52, 150–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flemmy, S.O.; Omine, K.; Zhang, Z. Effect of Installed Geotextile/Polyester and Biodegradable Materials for Dewatering Soft Clay. In Advances in Sustainable Construction and Resource Management; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 23–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flemmy, S.O.; Omine, K.; Zhang, Z. Simple dehydration technique using drainage string to treat drinking water sludge for utilization as geomaterial. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2022, 24, 1355–1367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sample Type | Fine Particle Content Fc (%) | Liquid Limit wL (%) | Plastic Limit wp (%) | Plasticity Index Ip | Loss on Ignition LOI (%) | Density ρs (g/cm3) | Natural Water Content wn (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample A | 64.77 | 121.98 | 82.12 | 39.86 | 23.4 | 2.32 | 160 |
Sample B | 65.05 | 142.00 | 93.68 | 48.32 | 19.2 | 2.27 | 152 |
Sample C | 67.46 | 158.00 | 96.92 | 61.08 | 17.3 | 2.55 | 208 |
Type of WDC | Kumamoto WDC (Sample A–C) |
---|---|
Solidifier | DF and OPC |
Mold size | Inner diameter is 100 mm, and the capacity is about 0.001 m3 |
Rammer mass | 2.5 kg |
Falling height | 300 mm (free fall) |
Storage time | 28 days |
Cone penetrometer | Tip angle 30°, bottom area 320 mm2 |
Penetration rate | 1 cm/s |
Measuring method | The penetration resistance force was measured at the depths of 50, 75, and 100 mm during penetration, and the resulting average value was divided by the cone bottom area to obtain the cone index. |
Measuring instrument | RZTA-1000N (IMADA) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhang, Z.; Li, C.; Omine, K.; Li, J.; Flemmy, S.O. Feasibility Study of Low-Environmental-Load Methods for Treating High-Water-Content Waste Dredged Clay (WDC)—A Case Study of WDC Treatment at Kumamoto Prefecture Ohkirihata Reservoir in Japan. Sustainability 2023, 15, 8243. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108243
Zhang Z, Li C, Omine K, Li J, Flemmy SO. Feasibility Study of Low-Environmental-Load Methods for Treating High-Water-Content Waste Dredged Clay (WDC)—A Case Study of WDC Treatment at Kumamoto Prefecture Ohkirihata Reservoir in Japan. Sustainability. 2023; 15(10):8243. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108243
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Zichen, Cui Li, Kiyoshi Omine, Jiageng Li, and Samuel Oye Flemmy. 2023. "Feasibility Study of Low-Environmental-Load Methods for Treating High-Water-Content Waste Dredged Clay (WDC)—A Case Study of WDC Treatment at Kumamoto Prefecture Ohkirihata Reservoir in Japan" Sustainability 15, no. 10: 8243. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108243