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Article

Exposure Concentrations and Inhalation Risk of Submicron Particles in a Gasoline Station—A Pilot Study

by
Xiangjing Gao
,
Peng Wang
,
Yong Hu
,
Yiyao Cao
,
Weiming Yuan
,
Yuqing Luan
,
Changjian Quan
,
Zhen Zhou
* and
Hua Zou
*
Department of Occupational Health and Radiation Protection, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(12), 9455; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129455
Submission received: 24 April 2023 / Revised: 30 May 2023 / Accepted: 6 June 2023 / Published: 12 June 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Environment and Human Health)
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Abstract

:
Gasoline is a globally used primary fuel. The submicron particles at gasoline stations have not been extensively investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the exposure concentrations and inhalation risk of submicron particles at a gasoline station. Temporal variations in particle concentrations and size distributions were measured using a real-time system. The effective doses of submicron particles deposited in different organs were analyzed using a computational fluid dynamics model and the value of environmental monitoring (including the size distributions of particles by number). The number concentration (NC) was higher during working hours than that of the background. Submicron particles gathered predominantly at 30.5 nm and 89.8 nm during working time. The effective doses of submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system and lungs were 0.131 × 10−3 and 0.014 mg, respectively, of which 0.026 × 10−3 mg potentially reached the brain. In a female worker with 3 years of exposure, the average daily effective doses in the olfactory system, lungs, and brain were 2.19 × 10−7 mg/kg·d−1, 2.34 × 10−5 mg/kg·d−1, and 4.35 × 10−8 mg/kg·d−1, respectively. These findings indicated that workers at this gasoline station had a high inhalation risk of submicron particles. This study provides baseline data on submicron particles at gasoline stations and a critical basis for investigating disease risk in longitudinal epidemiological studies.

1. Introduction

Gasoline is the primary fuel for internal combustion engines in small engines, including non-diesel cars, motorcycles, and non-diesel trucks. According to the China Statistical Yearbook 2021 [1], in 2019, there were approximately 119,000 convenience store gasoline stations, and gasoline consumption was 6.1 × 108 tons in China. Gasoline is known to be carcinogenic to humans and animals due to the toxicity of its components [2,3].
Gasoline exposure has been studied extensively due to its large consumption and adverse health effects. For example, Pranjić et al. assessed the chronic health effects in 37 workers at gasoline stations and identified that the workers exposed to gasoline for more than 5 years more frequently presented symptoms of depression and decreased reaction time and motor abilities [4]. Hematological and biochemical alterations among petrol station workers have been evaluated, with gas station attendants observed to experience higher levels of oxidative stress, relative to control participants [5]. The risk of exposure to benzene in gasoline and its health-related effects, including genotoxic and immunotoxic effects and oxidative stress, have been investigated in station workers [6,7,8,9,10,11]. Furthermore, studies have evaluated the occupational exposure and health risks of other gasoline components, such as methyl tertiary butyl ether, toluene, and ethylbenzene [12,13,14], and the biomarkers of oxidative stress and DNA damage in these workers [15,16,17]. Recently, a systematic review of 22 studies analyzed the effects of occupational exposure to petrol and gasoline components in gas station attendants and reported that occupational exposure to gasoline caused adverse effects on kidney and liver function [18].
Previous studies have been conducted on the health effects of gasoline composition and the possible molecular biomarkers. There is limited information regarding the potential inhalation risk of workers exposed to particulate matter (PM) at gasoline stations. PM, which contains complex harmful substances and is a documented human carcinogen, is a global threat to human health [19]. In particular, submicron particles, aerosols with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 1 µm, cause profound adverse effects on human health, including systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and coagulation changes [20,21]. Previous studies have shown that vehicles emissions are often the major contributor to ambient particulate matter, especially submicron particles (PM1) [19,22]. Gasoline stations not only have high traffic flow, but also have high concentrations of oil vapor, which can promote aerosol nucleation and subsequently high concentrations of particles [19]. Therefore, gasoline station workers spend considerable time exposed to submicron particles directly, and their occupational exposure to submicron particles is a major global public health concern.
Submicron particles, which have a large surface area, can stay in the atmosphere for a long time, thus having a high probability of inhalation. Thus, inhalation is the principal pathway by which workers are exposed to submicron particles [23]. Quantitative inhalation risk analysis is indispensable to assess health risks and to provide a scientific basis for their management. The effective dose of inhaled submicron particles, which is a quantified indicator of inhalation risk, was employed in this study, to evaluate the inhalation risk. Inhaled submicron particles, which can be blocked in the nasal cavity or deposited in the olfactory system and lungs [24,25], cause different health damaging effects. Submicron particles that are blocked in the nasal cavity can eventually be removed. In contrast, submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system may translocate to the brain and trigger central nervous system responses, given that the olfactory pathway has been identified, in animal studies, as a viable route for brain uptake of inhaled submicron particles [26]. Furthermore, submicron particles deposited in the lungs may be retained in the alveolus or translocate to other tissues, resulting in tissue damage [27,28]. Hence, a comprehensive understanding of the average daily doses (ADD) of workers and the effective doses of submicron particles deposited in the nasal cavity, olfactory system, and lungs is critical. To evaluate the effective doses of these particles, clarifying the exposure concentration of submicron particles is the first important step. Further, previous studies have found that the size distribution of particles is an important factor that affects their deposition [25,29]. Therefore, it is essential to assess the exposure concentration and size distribution of submicron particles for elucidating the effective doses of inhaled submicron particles.
The aims of this study were to: (1) evaluate the exposure concentrations of sub-micron particles (including the temporal variation in the total number concentration (NC), the personal NC of submicron particles, and the size distribution of submicron particles); and (2) determine the effective doses of inhaled submicron particles deposited in different regions (including the dosage in the nasal cavity, olfactory system, and lungs) and the ADD of workers. The findings of this research contribute to clarifying the inhalation risk of gasoline workers exposed to submicron particles and health risk management.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Workplace

A gasoline station in Hangzhou City in the Zhejiang province of east China was selected for the field investigation. At this station, gasoline is used as a raw material and product. The work process includes gasoline unloading through pipes and refueling with a gasoline dispenser. Workers are potentially exposed to submicron particles during both processes at the station. The duration of gasoline unloading is unknown, but the process duration is short. Conversely, the refueling process is relatively constant, and the duration covers the work cycle. In this study, the refueling process was investigated.

2.2. Measurement System and Quality Control

Submicron particles were measured at the gasoline station using a suite of real-time instruments. The NC of particles was determined by using a portable condensation particle counter (CPC; model 3007, TSI, Shoreview, MN, USA) that measured particles in the 10 to 1000 nm range. The Diffusion Size Classifier Miniature (DiSCmini, Testo, Titisee-Neustadt, Germany), which can measure the number and average size of particles smaller than 700 nm, was used to measure personal NC and particle size. The particle size distribution was recorded using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS, model 3034, TSI), which had a particle-size measuring range of 10 nm to 487 nm.
All used equipment was calibrated by the manufacturer (TSI) once a year. Each device was reset to zero and the inlet filter was cleaned in a clean environment before measurements were performed. The devices were then set to logging mode and set to continuous measurement time and data logging interval time. The isopropyl alcohol cartridge of CPC was replaced every 4 h.

2.3. Sampling Strategy

Measurements were conducted on 31 March 2023, a sunny day with an outdoor temperature of 12–16 °C. The sampling process, based on the “Nanomaterial Exposure Assessment Technique (NEAT 2.0)” [30] and “Determination of dust in the air of workplaces—part 6: Total number concentration of ultrafine and fine particles (GBZ/T 192.6—2018)” [31] involved three procedures. The first procedure was a field investigation, which included a survey of processing technology, the number of staff, work tasks, frequency and duration of operations, and exposure control measures. The station contains 6 gasoline dispensers and employs 18 workers. It operates 24 h a day, 7 days a week (3 work shifts, 8 h per shift). The gasoline dispensers in this station can be refueled in both directions and each direction has three oil guns. Each refueling dispenser has an oil-gas recovery system that starts automatically when the refueling tanker is used. Six workers are assigned to each work shift, each worker operates one gasoline dispenser, and the refueling time for workers is approximately 7 h. The workers are not provided with respiratory protective equipment. The second procedure was background measurement, in which the backgrounds in the workplace and outside the workplace were included and the sampling duration was 30 min as specified in “Determination of dust in the air of workplaces—part 6: Total number concentration of ultrafine and fine particles”. The sampling location of the background in the workplace was at the upwind site of the gasoline station, 15.5 m away from the gasoline dispensers, with no personnel activity, as shown in Figure 1 The monitoring time was from 8:14 to 8:43, during which only 5 vehicles entered for refueling. The sampling location of background outside the workplace was selected at an open area of the residential area next to the gasoline station, without particles source of release. The monitoring time was from 18:51 to 19:15. The sampling dates of both backgrounds were the same as the area sampling. To reduce the influence of random ambient conditions, such as buildings, and the condition of vegetation cover, the background in the workplace was selected when calculating the concentration ratios and analyzing the particle size distribution. The third procedure involved environmental measurements, in which the sampling site was located near the gasoline dispenser ②, as illustrated in Figure 1, and the sampling time was from 9:47 to 17:35, approximately 8 h, covering one complete work shift. According to the “Specifications of air sampling for hazardous substances monitoring in the workplace (GBZ159-2004)” [32], the inlets of the monitoring instruments were situated 1.3 m above the ground and downwind direction. The distance between the inlets of the instruments and the aerosol source was approximately 0.8 m. During the sampling period, 185 cars were refilled at the sampled gasoline dispenser. Moreover, personal sampling was conducted in this study, in which the gas station attendant working at the sampled gasoline dispenser was selected for personal sampling. The selected attendant had worked for 3 years at the gas station. The sampling period covered one complete work shift for this attendant.
The total concentrations during working hours were revised using background concentrations to obtain the concentration ratios (CR; sampling location vs. background), which reflect the degree of submicron particles released from the particle generation source.

2.4. Analysis of Effective Doses of Submicron Particles

The inhalation concentration of submicron particles was calculated using the “Software for respiratory exposure dose estimation and risk assessment of fine particulate matter” software, which was registered with the Copyright Protection Center of China (https://register.ccopyright.com.cn/query.html accessed on 17 November 2021) and the registration number is 2021SR1773659. This software, based on the computational fluid dynamics model established by Tian et al. [33], assessed the concentrations of submicron particles deposited in the nasal cavity, olfactory system, and lungs. The empirical equation used in the software is:
Dose mass = ∫ t 1 t 2 ∫ d 1 d 2 ρ π 6 d 3 · n ( d , r → , t ) · DE · Q
where (t1, t2) is the exposure time, (d1, d2) is the size range of particles, ρ is the density of particles, d is the particle diameter, n ( d , r → , t ) is the environmental particle size distribution, DE is the regional deposition rate of the inhaled particles, and Q is the breathing rate of workers. Here, the size of particles ranged from 10 to 487 nm, which was consistent with the particle range of SMPS measured. Based on previous studies, ρ and DE were assumed to be 1.2 g/cc and 12 L/min, respectively [33,34,35]. The n ( d , r → , t ) referred to the data measured with SMPS. The DE was calculated using the equation embedded in the software, which was described in a previous study [34] and was displayed as follows:
DE human olfactory = exp[a0 + a1cos(ωln(d)) + b1sin(ωln(d)) + a2cos(2ωln(d)) + b2sin(2ωln(d)) +
a3cos(3ωln(d)) + b3sin(3ωln(d)) + a4cos(4ωln(d)) + b4sin(4ωln(d)) +
a5cos(5ωln(d)) + b5sin(5ωln(d)) + a6cos(6ωln(d)) + b6sin(6ωln(d))]
where ai, bi, and ω are coefficients developed from a polynomial function of the breathing airflow rate, which was as follows:
c0 + c1Q + c2Q2 + c3Q3
where c0, c1, c2, and c3 are the empirical coefficients previously published [34]. According to the formula of DE human olfactory, the calculated values of a0, a1, and b1 are 1.0754, 1.9112, and 1.2950, respectively, when the breathing airflow rate is 12 L/min.
By combining the software data output and the penetration rate of submicron particles from the olfactory system to the brain, we estimated the long-term brain accumulation of submicron particles for a worker. This study employed a 20% submicron particle penetration rate via the olfactory pathway according to the rat whole-body inhalation study reported by Oberdörster et al. [36].
According to the Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund formulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [37], the ADD (mg/kg·d−1) of workers was calculated using the following equation:
ADD = D · E D · E F B W · A T
where D is the Dosemass calculated by equation (1) (mg/day), ED is the exposure duration (year), and EF is the frequency of exposure (days/year). Based on our field investigation, the EF is about 122 days/year for workers in this study. BW is body weight (kg), which is typically assumed to be 70 kg for males and 60 kg for females [38]. AT is the average working time (days) in a lifetime, which is approximately 3650 days.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the differences in the particle concentrations between working time and background.

3. Results

3.1. Submicron Particle Concentrations at the Gasoline Station

The temporal variations in the total NC and personal NC of submicron particles are presented in Figure 2. During working time, the total NC of particles with sizes ranging from 10 to 1000 nm was higher than 1 × 104 pt/cm3 (Figure 2a). The highest NC, which occurred four times during the working time, was higher than 3.2 × 104 pt/cm3 and was about seven times as high as the total NC of the background. Similarly, personal NC, with sizes below 700 nm, was higher than 1 × 104 pt/cm3 during working time (Figure 2b), and the highest personal NC reached was 2.7 × 104 pt/cm3. During lunchtime, personal NC was approximately 0.5 × 104 pt/cm3.

3.2. Average Submicron Particles Concentrations during Working Time and in the Background

The average particle concentrations during different periods are listed in Table 1. The total and personal NCs during the working time were 1.32 ± 0.32 × 104/cm3 and 0.24 ± 0.01 mg/m3, respectively, which were significantly higher than that of the background or lunch time (p < 0.01). The CRs for total and personal NC during the working time were 1.97 and 1.89, respectively.

3.3. Temporal Variation in Size Distribution and Particle Size

Figure 3 presents the particle size distribution, determined using SMPS. The nano dust/aerosol monitor (DMA) determined particles with diameters ranging from 10.4 to 96.5 nm, and the long DMA determined particles that ranged from 103.7 to 469.8 nm. During working time, the predominant particle size was 10.4–100 nm; the most abundant particles, with numbers over 1.6 × 105 pt/cm3, were 30.5 nm and 89.8 nm in size (Figure 3a). Regarding long DMA particles, those larger than 245.8 nm were under 5 × 103 pt/cm3 in number during working time (Figure 3b). The number of background particles of each size was less than 2 × 104 pt/cm3.
The mode and geometric mean size values of the particles were smaller during working time than in the background (Figure 4a). The change in the geometric mean sizes was more sensitive than that for the mode value. The size of particles determined by DiSCmini was bimodal during working time (40 nm and 60 nm). The size of particles was about 100 nm during lunch time, which was larger than that during working time.

3.4. Effective Dose of Submicron Particles for Workers

Given the particle size distribution recorded by SMPS, breathing rate (12 L/min), and exposure time (6 h), the accumulation of submicron particles in the olfactory system, nasal cavity, and lungs was calculated using the software described in the Section 2.
As presented in Table 2, the effective dose of submicron particles in the olfactory system was the lowest (0.131 × 10−3 mg), whereas the effective dose of submicron particles deposited in the nasal cavity was the highest (0.056 mg). Based on the effective dose of submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system and translocation rate from this area to the brain (20%), the effective dose of submicron particles deposited in the brain was calculated to be 0.026 × 10−3 mg in one working day. The deposited dosage of submicron particles was used as D to calculate the ADD of workers. For the selected worker in this study, the ADDs in the olfactory system, nasal cavity, lungs, and brain were 2.19 × 10−7 mg/kg·d−1, 9.36 × 10−5 mg/kg·d−1, 2.34 × 10−5 mg/kg·d−1, and 4.35 × 10−8 mg/kg·d−1, respectively. The ADDs of assumed workers were calculated and showed that the ADD for female workers was higher than that for male workers.

4. Discussion

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued in 1994 a final rule, termed the “211 (b)” rule, that mandated new health effects information and testing for motor vehicle fuels and fuel additives [39]. Over the past few decades, efforts have been made to determine the composition of gasoline emissions and their health effects [40,41,42,43]. However, few studies have reported on the submicron particles and their inhalation risk at gasoline stations. In this study, we characterized submicron particles emitted at a gasoline station and evaluated the effective dose of inhaled submicron particles by integrating environmental monitoring and dosimetry equations.
The temporal variation and average concentration of submicron particles showed that total NC and personal NC were higher during working time than in the background location, which supports the conjecture that the workers may expose to high concentrations of submicron particles during the refueling process. Correspondingly, the CRs of total NC and personal NC were 1.97 and 1.89, respectively, which suggested a high exposure concentration to submicron particles during working time. Vehicle emission might be an important contributor to the high concentration of submicron particles, which has been reported in previous particle source determination studies [44,45]. Furthermore, the oil vapor emitted during refueling could assist the aerosol nucleation, which is responsible for a major fraction of particle number concentrations [46,47]. There were four obvious spikes in particle concentrations during working hours. According to the records of events, the possible reasons are the sharp increase in traffic flow and the clustering of people near the sampling point. The NC of submicron particles fluctuated during working time, which indicated that NC is sensitive to submicron particles. This is supported by our previous field studies, in which NC was reported to be a sensitive measurement for nanoparticle levels [48,49].
Size distribution analysis revealed that the predominant size of particles at the gasoline station during working time ranged between 10.4 and 100 nm, and the most abundant particles were 30.5 nm and 89.8 nm in size. In contrast, the particle size distribution in the background was homogeneous. The difference in size distribution between working time and background suggests that the workers are potentially exposed to high levels of ultrafine particles during the refueling process. The variations in the size of the mode and geometric mean values were similar, which is in accordance with our previous study on submicron particles in a Chinese restaurant [50]. The variation in the size of personal NC during working time was bimodal with values of 40 and 60 nm (Figure 4b), which suggested the primary size of particles and the agglomerate state or aerosol nucleation. This is consistent with a previously reported bimodal size distribution of submicron particles in a steel-making plant [51].
The nasal cavity is the first line of defense and the first interaction site for inhaled submicron particles. The inhaled submicron particles can be retained in the nasal cavity or deposited in the olfactory system. In this study, we observed that approximately 0.131 × 10−3 mg of inhaled submicron particles were deposited in the olfactory system during one working day. The inhaled submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system can travel up the olfactory nerves to the brain [36]. In the current study, we calculated that approximately 0.026 × 10−3 mg of submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system reached the brain during one working day, which is three times that of a WEDM workshop reported in a previous study [34]. For the worker selected in this study, the ADDs in the olfactory area and brain were 2.19 × 10−7 mg/kg·d−1 and 4.35 × 10−8 mg/kg·d−1, respectively. Previous studies have reported on the effects of submicron particles in the brain [51,52]. Submicron particles that accumulate in the brain not only translocate and directly damage neural tissue but also affect autonomic function [52,53]. Short-term memory impairment and cortical and hippocampal changes have been reported in animal models exposed to submicron particles [53]. In gasoline station workers, several neurologic health-related effects of exposure to particles in gasoline have been reported, including impaired intellectual capacity, psychomotor, and visual-motor functions, and delayed memory [54]. The dosage deposited in the olfactory system and the ADD measured in this study suggest that there is a high risk of neurotoxicity in workers of gasoline stations, associated with submicron particles, which need further investigation.
The lungs are highly vulnerable to toxicity due to their excellent absorption surface. We observed an effective dose of 0.014 mg submicron particles deposited in the lungs and a 2.34 × 10−5 mg/kg·d−1 ADD in these organs. These results indicated that most of the inhaled submicron particles were deposited in the lungs of the workers. Submicron particles deposited in the lungs can easily gain access to the alveoli, lung interstitium, and periphery compared to larger particles [55]. Moreover, the large surface-area to mass ratio allows submicron particles to carry large amounts of adsorbed materials per unit mass and to sidestep the mucociliary escalator clearance mechanisms in the lungs [56]. The high effective dose of submicron particles reported in this study may induce severe damage to individuals, such as a restrictive type of lung function impairment and a decline in lung function capacity and volume [57,58]. Thus, the submicron particles deposited in the lungs required immediate attention.
Other severe health effects of inhaled submicron particles, including systemic inflammation, cardiovascular changes, and even cancer have also been reported [20,59,60]. However, the precise dose-dependent risk of diseases among workers remains unknown and warrants more research. It is worth noting that the estimated effective dosage of submicron particles deposited in different body areas and the ADD for workers provides a critical basis for investigating the risk of diseases in longitudinal epidemiological studies.
This study had a few limitations and uncertainties. First, measurements were performed at one gasoline station during one single day, which limits the generalizability of the results and the influence of several factors such as different meteorological conditions. Second, the penetration rate of the deposited submicron particles along the olfactory pathway to the brain was estimated based on a single reference and, thus, requires further validation. Third, the ultrafine particles, which have different deposition efficiencies compared to larger particles, need to be distinguished from larger particles and evaluated separately in further studies.
In the future, more studies are warranted to comprehensively elucidate the health risks of submicron particle exposure at gasoline stations. The composition of submicron particles that contribute to health effects should be considered and more studies, at different gasoline stations under different weather conditions, should be performed to understand the inhalation risk of workers due to exposure to submicron particles accurately.

5. Conclusions

In summary, workers at gasoline stations are exposed to high concentrations of submicron particles during working hours. High effective doses of submicron particles are deposited in the olfactory system, lung, and brain tissues, in particularly high quantities in the lungs. This study provides baseline data on submicron particles at gasoline stations and estimates the effective doses of such particles deposited in the olfactory system, lung, and brain tissues. Our findings indicate that workers exposed to submicron particles have a high inhalation risk, and appropriate measures to protect workers, such as management control and personal protection equipment, are necessary.

Author Contributions

X.G. designed and performed the investigation, analyzed data, provided funding, and wrote part of the original draft; P.W., Y.C. and Y.H. contributed to the investigation, supervision, and quality control; Y.L., W.Y. and C.Q. contributed to the formal analysis and data curation; Z.Z. and H.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province, grant number LY22H260004, and the Medical Health Technology Project by the Health Commission of Zhejiang, grants number 2020KY517 and 2021KY120.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the gasoline station and the relevant staff.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the gasoline station. The star symbol represents the sampling locations of the background measurements, and the triangle represents the sampling site of the refueling process.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the gasoline station. The star symbol represents the sampling locations of the background measurements, and the triangle represents the sampling site of the refueling process.
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Figure 2. Temporal variations in the number concentration (NC) of submicron particles. (a) Temporal variations in total NC in backgrounds and operation locations. (b) Temporal variations in personal NC during working hours and lunch break.
Figure 2. Temporal variations in the number concentration (NC) of submicron particles. (a) Temporal variations in total NC in backgrounds and operation locations. (b) Temporal variations in personal NC during working hours and lunch break.
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Figure 3. Temporal variations in particle size distribution by number. (a) Scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) with nano dust/aerosol monitor (DMA). (b) SMPS with Long DMA.
Figure 3. Temporal variations in particle size distribution by number. (a) Scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) with nano dust/aerosol monitor (DMA). (b) SMPS with Long DMA.
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Figure 4. Temporal variations in particle size. (a) Variations in particle size monitored with SMPS; (b) Variations in particle size monitored with DiSCmini.
Figure 4. Temporal variations in particle size. (a) Variations in particle size monitored with SMPS; (b) Variations in particle size monitored with DiSCmini.
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Table
Table 1. Average submicron particle concentrations during working and background periods.
Table 1. Average submicron particle concentrations during working and background periods.
MetricsWorking TimeBackground/Lunch Time
Mean ± SDCRMean ± SDCR
Total NC (104 pt/cm3)1.32 ± 0.38 (n = 465) a1.970.67 ± 0.08 (n = 30)1.00
Personal NC (104 pt/cm3)1.15 ± 0.27 (n = 431) b1.890.61 ± 0.04 (n = 58)1.00
a, p < 0.01, as compared with the background; b, p < 0.01, as compared with the lunch time period; CR, Concentration ratio; NC, Number concentration; SD, Standard deviation.
Table
Table 2. Effective doses of submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system, nasal cavity, lungs, and brain in a typical working day and workers ADD.
Table 2. Effective doses of submicron particles deposited in the olfactory system, nasal cavity, lungs, and brain in a typical working day and workers ADD.
AreaOlfactoryNasal CavityLungBrain
Dosage
One working day (mg)0.131 × 10−30.0560.0140.026 × 10−3
ADD (mg/kg·d−1)The worker in this study (female with 3 years of ED)2.19 × 10−79.36 × 10−52.34 × 10−54.35 × 10−8
Female with 5 years of ED3.65 × 10−71.56 × 10−43.90 × 10−57.25 × 10−8
Male with 5 years of ED3.13 × 10−71.34 × 10−43.34 × 10−56.21 × 10−8
ADD, Average daily dose; ED, exposure duration.
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Gao, X.; Wang, P.; Hu, Y.; Cao, Y.; Yuan, W.; Luan, Y.; Quan, C.; Zhou, Z.; Zou, H. Exposure Concentrations and Inhalation Risk of Submicron Particles in a Gasoline Station—A Pilot Study. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9455. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129455

AMA Style

Gao X, Wang P, Hu Y, Cao Y, Yuan W, Luan Y, Quan C, Zhou Z, Zou H. Exposure Concentrations and Inhalation Risk of Submicron Particles in a Gasoline Station—A Pilot Study. Sustainability. 2023; 15(12):9455. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129455

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gao, Xiangjing, Peng Wang, Yong Hu, Yiyao Cao, Weiming Yuan, Yuqing Luan, Changjian Quan, Zhen Zhou, and Hua Zou. 2023. "Exposure Concentrations and Inhalation Risk of Submicron Particles in a Gasoline Station—A Pilot Study" Sustainability 15, no. 12: 9455. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129455

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