1. Introduction
Resin tapping has long been an important activity in rural areas of the Mediterranean [
1,
2]. It has been a fundamental part of forest management of pine species, as in the cases of the Maritime pine (
Pinus pinaster Ait.) in the Iberian peninsula and France, the Calabrian pine (
Pinus brutia) in Turkey [
3], and the Aleppo pine (
Pinus halepensis) in Greece [
4]. Resin is a natural forestry renewable resource of considerable economic value worldwide, constitutes a primary ingredient for the manufacturing of high-value chemical products [
5,
6,
7], and is an important source of employment and income for local communities [
8,
9,
10].
Resin represents much more than a precious resource; it is a material co-produced by nature and people [
11] that facilitates the flow of ecosystem services to the local communities [
12]. It entails close human intervention in ecosystems, at least during the tapping season, that could be better described as repeated reduced-impact forest cultivating operations. Such operations include thinning and fuel reduction operations, which are invaluable in the fire-prone Mediterranean forest ecosystems for better control and management of the wildfires when they occur [
10,
13]. Furthermore, resin tappers often serve as early detectors of fires, helping to alert authorities and facilitate a more rapid response. Their actions, immediate or not, are directly connected to pivotal ecosystem services that include forest protection, soil conservation, water regulation [
14], and carbon sequestration [
15,
16], among others. Furthermore, tapping as an activity lowers the need for investment in tending and silvicultural treatments, which are essential for maintenance of these traditional forest systems [
9], especially when other traditional land uses are abandoned [
17].
Pine stands have long been a source of additional income in the Mediterranean area, and European countries (Portugal, France, Greece, Portugal, and Spain) were major producers during the 1960s. A major decline in resin production took place in the decades that followed, in some cases leading to the abandonment of the activity in the 1990s. A combination of factors was responsible for this change, most notably the considerable drop in prices of local resins due to the availability of cheaper
Pinus massoniana resin originating from China, which was coupled with increases in the cost of local manual labor [
2,
9,
18]. As has happened to other traditional forestry-related activities [
19,
20], resin tapping is threatened with extinction for social reasons that include low professional profile and low job satisfaction. Nevertheless, in recent years efforts have been made to reactivate resin tapping, in recognition of its close relationship with ecosystem services and its links to the prosperity or rural areas [
9].
Resin tapping in Greece goes back to ancient times [
21]. Tapping has been reported for three pine species,
P. halepensis,
P. brutia, and
P. nigra; however, in the last several decades it has been continued only in the case of
P. halepensis, which offers the best combination of productivity and profit. Resin is collected from both privately owned and state-owned forests following the guidelines described in the relevant national legislation [
22,
23]. In the case of private forests, the forest owners receive a portion of the revenue generated from the sale of resin, and the specific percentage is determined through an agreement between them and the resin tappers. In contrast, the Greek State recognizes the valuable contribution of resin tappers, and provides them with the entire proceeds earned. Following the Second World War, national resin production reached 30,348 t in 1956, a value close to the highest recorded value of 30,775 t in 1938 [
24]. In 1962, Greece and Spain were the top resin exporters worldwide [
2]. Following a declining trend, the annual resin production was reduced to around 10,000 t in 1986 and currently is within the range of 4000–5000 t [
4,
8,
25]. Employment in resin tapping has declined over the last fifty years. Resin tapper numbers amounted to 6000 in 1975, 4000 in 1987, and are currently less than 800, organized into 42 cooperatives [
8,
24].
Papajianopoulos [
24] estimated in 2000 that Greek forests could produce 18,000 t of resin in a context of sustainable co-production of wood and non-wood forest products. More recently, Spanos et al. [
4] estimated the area of pine forests available for resin tapping at 327,500 ha, of which that actually used was 147,500 ha. Currently, resin tapping is practiced in the Evia, Korinthia, Ilia, Attica, and Chalkidiki regions, among which the northern part of Evia represents the major contributor to national resin production, where tapping activity was reduced but never abandoned. Furthermore, Northern Evia has shown a considerable increase of 25.4% in the number of resin tappers, from 362 in 2014 to 454 in 2018, along with an increase of 31.1% in resin production from 1985 t in 2014 to 2603 t in 2020 [
8,
25].
Unfortunately, the recent revival of resin production in Northern Evia was abruptly halted by a catastrophic wildfire on August 3, 2021, which persisted for eight days and led to the destruction of 51,203 Ha of forest, accounting for almost 70% of the tapped forests in the region. This event dealt a significant blow to national resin production, 85% of which was concentrated in Northern Evia. The problems that resulted have a strong social dimension as well. If employment alternatives are not provided, certain resin tapping communities are expected to be largely abandoned, primarily by their younger and most productive members, who will need to seek other career opportunities. To avoid such undesirable developments, the Greek State has provided financial aid that was paid ten days after the fire as well as an income loss compensation. The latter support measure was dependent upon the applicant’s personal resin production record the year before at a predefined rate of EUR 0.40/kg of resin. Furthermore, resin tappers in the area were employed in restoration works in the burnt areas, and a seven-year long community support program was announced that, starting in 2022, would provide employment to former resin tappers in forest operations under the supervision of the local forest authorities.
It is challenging to assess the impacts of the fire in Northern Evia, as they are complex and interconnected with various factors influencing each other. Considering the importance of resin tapping and its linkages to ecosystem services, this paper focuses on the human capital of the area that has been undoubtedly affected the most. The objective of this paper is to investigate the attitudes and perceptions of resin tappers after the catastrophic event, with a focus on understanding the factors that influence their willingness to continue working in the resin tapping sector. The study examines the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. There is a significant relationship between resin tappers’ sociodemographic profile and their willingness to continue working in the resin tapping sector.
Hypothesis 2. There is a positive correlation between the availability of support policies and measures and resin tappers’ willingness to continue working in the resin tapping sector.
The study used a mixed-methods approach, including a structured questionnaire, statistical analysis, and semi-structured interviews. The results of this study can provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the forestry sector to develop more effective policies and measures to support the sustainability of the resin tapping sector and rural employment in Northern Evia.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Study Area
The island of Evia (or Euboea) stretches along the northeastern coast of mainland Greece (
Figure 1). It is the second largest Greek island, after Crete, with an area of 365,400 ha. It is approximately 180 km long, oriented from northwest to southeast, and its width reaches 45 km in its central part. In terms of relief, Evia can be divided into three parts: northern, central, and southern Evia. Following the occurrence of the catastrophic wildfire, the northern part of the island holds specific significance within the scope of this study. It is characterized by hilly and flat areas interrupted by the Telethrio and the Xiron mountains, which have altitudes of 997 m and 991 m, respectively. In certain locations, steep slopes are the prevailing terrain.
The study area is managed by the Forest Service Office of Limni (FSOL), is located in northern central Evia, and extends in longitude from 23°13′ to 23°40′ and in latitude from 38°40′ to 38°55′, covering an area of 57,073 Ha [
8,
26].
According to the latest management plan of the FSOL, forest covers 79.5% of the total area. It consists of xerophytic and flammable species, namely, Aleppo pine with an understory of evergreen broad-leaved trees, which occupy over 75% of the total area, and fir, black pine, and oak, which account for approximately 25% of the forest; the former is particularly vulnerable to wildfires. The wildfire that occurred in Evia in 1977 is known as one of the largest and most destructive wildfires in modern Greek history [
27]. The fire broke out on 24 August 1977 and raged for several days, eventually consuming an area of approximately 41,000 hectares of forest, farmland, and settlements, and resulted in the deaths of six people. The burnt areas recovered, and resin tapping resumed in the years that followed.
2.2. Selection of Participants
The population under study was made up of communities of resin tappers located in Northern Evia. The number of resin tappers between 2014 and 2018, as reported by the resin tappers’ cooperative archives and FSOL, varied from 362 to 454. The selection of study participants was carried out at the community level. The cooperatives’ archives of resin tappers yielded valuable information about both the cooperative production and its members, although it did not include any data on those resin tappers working as freelancers. Although it involved additional expense, the decision was made to visit all study areas in order to conduct an on-site examination of the situation. This research choice was justified by the fact that the majority of resin tappers were initially very negative with regard to participating in the study or even expressing their views on the fire. Additionally, certain resin tappers reported as registered could not be reached because they were employed in other professions in the meantime.
In addition, specific selection criteria were applied for participation. Resin tappers who met the following conditions were eligible to participate: (a) having been active in the study area for at least five years, and (b) working and residing in Northern Evia. The number of participants was determined using a proportional stratified sampling method. The work experience of the forest workers was utilized as a stratification criterion, which included four categories: 1–10 years, 11–20 years, 20–30 years, and more than 30 years.
2.3. Questionnaire and Interviews
The results in this article originate from personal interviews held with resin tappers in the study area. The data collection process involved the use of a structured questionnaire, which aimed to investigate the participants’ perceptions of specific aspects of the study. The questionnaire was accompanied by a cover letter that provided information on the background and purpose of the study.
In the first part, profile information was collected from all respondents. The second part encompassed inquiries regarding the effects of the wildfire on their occupational situation and the expected timeframe for ecosystem recovery, while its last part focused on the assessment of measures and incentives for the promotion of forest-related professions in the study area. A five-point Likert scale was used to measure the perceived level of importance (ascending scale from 1 to 5). To ensure that the questions were unbiased, clear, and comprehensive, the questionnaire was pre-tested by 21 resin tappers. This helped to identify any potential issues with the questions, such as misunderstandings, or confusion, and to verify the quality and comprehensiveness of the information obtained.
During the interview process, many resin tappers expressed a negative attitude towards the study and voiced doubts about its potential contribution. Additionally, several participants had a low level of literacy, which made personal interviews the best method for data collection. On the contrary, in a few cases participants with tertiary education degrees preferred to complete the questionnaire on their own and ask questions if needed. To ensure the validity of the findings, informal follow-up discussions were conducted.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
The responses were analyzed with SPSS software version 23. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to assess the normality of the data, considering the relatively small sample size of 89. Additionally, the homogeneity of variance was examined using Levene’s test. Because the data did not meet the criteria for normal distribution and homogeneity of variance, non-parametric analyses were exclusively employed to investigate the comparisons between sub-groups of respondents and the relationships among variables. Because the responses were ratings rather than a continuous measure, these data are not suitable for analysis of variance [
28]. When the assumptions for a repeated measures analysis of variance are not met, the non-parametric alternative is the Friedman test. This involves ranking the scores for each variable and comparing the mean ranks between the variables to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences. Additionally, the maximum likelihood χ
2 test was employed to test for statistically significant differences between the responses of different groups of participants. The Mann–Whitney U test was utilized to investigate significant differences between the medians of the examined groups. The level of significance was set to α = 0.05 for all cases.
Categorical principal components analysis (CATPCA) was used to identify consistencies between categories of variables, specifically, the responses from the study participants. CATPCA was performed using the SPSS Categories module, which is a generalization of principal components analysis (PCA) [
29]. PCA reduces variables in a dataset to a small number of principal components that represent the information in the variables as closely as possible. CATPCA uses iterative Alternating Least Squares (ALS) to optimally quantify the categorical modalities of each variable [
30]. CATPCA is flexible in handling variables of different analysis levels, including nominal, ordinal, and numerical variables, and can deal with nonlinear relationships between variables. This makes it a useful exploratory technique in empirical surveys [
31,
32].
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ Background Information
In the period February–May 2022, a total of 89 resin tappers were interviewed, the majority of whom were male (73–82%). The average age was 45.57 years (sd ± 9.91) with professional experience averaging 17.83 years (sd ± 9.40). The respondents’ age range was broader in males (23–69 years) compared to females (31–60). Almost three quarters of them had completed lower secondary education (35.2%) and upper secondary education (31.8%), while fewer (19.3%) had attended primary education (sometimes incomplete). Nine out of the 89 participants had a university degree (10.2%). Moreover, most male participants (59–81.9%) and almost all female participants (15–93.75%) identified themselves as members of the local resin tappers cooperative (χ2 = 0.624, df = 1, p = 0.430).
3.2. Changes as a Result of the Fire
Despite describing themselves as resin tappers, 34 male respondents (46.6%) and one female respondent (6.3%) were forced to work in other professions in the period that followed the fire (χ
2 = 11.555, df = 1,
p = 0.001). These professions were in the majority related to other forest professions, most notably forest work (62.9%), other agricultural work (11.4%), or manual labor (22.8%) (
Table 1). It is worth noting that all these professions were exercised in close proximity to participants’ place of residence.
The study revealed that both male and female participants exhibit a considerable degree of optimism towards the restoration of the burnt ecosystems, with 84.9% and 91.1% of them, respectively, expressing their belief that the recovery would span from “fair” to “complete” (
Figure 2). Both respondent groups share the belief that the burnt areas will recover within a period of 30.3 ± 8.97 years on average (F = 0.481, df = 1,
p = 0.490), and further agree that it will take an additional decade (40.05 ± 11.22 years after the fire) to reactivate resin production (F = 0.319, df = 1,
p = 0.574).
Reforestation (53.9%), soil erosion mitigation measures (52.8%), and salvage logging in the burnt areas (51.7%) are perceived as necessary actions to facilitate the recovery process of the impacted ecosystems. It is noteworthy that the respondents emphasize the need for a comprehensive long-term forest management and protection strategy in the coming years (e.g., thinning, protection from grazing animals) to optimize the attainment of the restoration objectives.
3.3. Satisfaction with State Measures
The majority of the respondents (61.8%) received financial assistance in the aftermath of the incident intended, which was aimed at covering their immediate expenses. Moreover, compensation for loss of income was provided to 79.8% of the respondents (
Table 2). Regardless of whether they received any form of assistance, the respondents expressed extremely low satisfaction levels (median = 1) towards the fire management and initial mitigation actions carried out by the state authorities. Notably, the financial aid recipient group exhibited significant differences in their responses (U = 558.5,
p < 0.001), unlike the income loss support recipients (U = 851.5,
p = 0.795). Among all groups, the prevailing proportion, 63.6–90.9% of the respondents, reported being ‘very poorly’ or ‘poorly’ satisfied.
Table 3 reveals that the respondents expressed higher levels of satisfaction towards the effectiveness of the implemented recovery measures. The majority of both groups of financial assistance recipients rated their satisfaction as being from “poor” to “fair”, and shared a median value of 3 (U = 565.0,
p = 0.373). Conversely, the recipients of income loss compensation exhibited lower levels of satisfaction (median = 3) compared to those who did not receive it (median = 4), as evidenced by the significant difference in their responses (U = 432.0,
p = 0.034).
Nearly 70% of the respondents reported being satisfied with the announced employment program. While a higher proportion of female respondents expressed satisfaction (87.5%) compared to their male counterparts (65.8%), the observed difference was not statistically significant (χ2 = 3.353, df = 1, p = 0.067).
The majority of the respondents believed that there will be a need for forest workers (50.6%) in the future (
Table 4). On the contrary, the outlook for resin tapping was not encouraging, with only 19.1% of the interviewees expressing optimism. Similarly, the perspectives for construction workers (20.2%), forest operation supervisors (14.6%), and forest machine operators (12.4%) were not optimistic.
Of the 89 respondents, 41 (46.6%) were willing to work as forest workers and 25 (28.4%) were willing to work as resin tappers in the future. Additionally, twelve respondents expressed their willingness to work in the employment program (13.5%). This suggests that, in total, 71 of the 89 respondents (79.8%) are willing to be employed in a forestry-related profession in the future.
3.4. Measures for Promoting Employment in Forest-Related Professions
Incentives (77.1%) represented the best option for improving the attractiveness of the resin tapping profession. Better promotion of the forestry sector through the vocational guidance system was next with 27.3%, followed by social media with 19.3% and traditional media with 11.4%, respectively.
Finally, the respondents were asked to assess the importance of different types of incentives (
Table 5). They rated, in order of magnitude: reduced taxation, equipment subsidies, incentive payments, and earlier retirement, with mean ranks ranging from 2.39 to 2.75. However, there were no statistically significant differences between their rankings (F = 5.824, df = 3,
p = 0.120).
3.5. CATPCA Results
Ten variables were used in total for the application of the CATPCA method, with four of these measured on the ordinal scale and six on the nominal scale. The variables used were the following: age group (“Age group”: ordinal, 1–5), annual resin production (“Resin production”: ordinal, 1–5), membership at a resin tappers’ cooperative (“Cooperative member”: binary, 1–2), work experience (“Work experience”, ordinal, 1–4), job difficulty (“Job difficulty”: ordinal, 1–5), participant’s sex (“Sex”: binary, 1–2), willingness of young people to be employed in resin tapping (“Young people”: binary, 1–2), income loss compensation (“Income loss compensation”, binary, 1–2), intention to work as a forest worker in the future (“Forest worker”: binary, 1–2), and intention to work as a resin tapper in the future (“Resin tapper”: binary, 1–2).
The convergence criterion value of 0.00001 was met after seventeen iterations. The two-dimensional solution resulted in eigenvalues of λ
1 = 1.81 for the first principal component (PC1) and λ
2 = 1.49 for the second principal component (PC2), both of which satisfy the acceptance value of 1 [
33,
34]. This two-dimensional solution explains 63% of the total variance.
The values of the variable loadings for the two principal components are described in
Table 6. The variables ‘‘Intention to work as a resin tapper’’, ‘‘Willingness of young people to be employed in resin tapping’’, and ‘‘Job difficulty’’ present the highest positive loadings in relation to PC1 and form a group that could be interpreted as ‘‘Perceptions of the resin tapper profession’’. The variable ‘‘Intention to work as a forest worker” presents the highest negative loadings in relation to PC1.
Similarly, the variables ‘‘Income loss compensation’’ and ‘‘Cooperative member’’ present the highest positive loadings in relation to PC2. This group could be interpreted as ‘‘Personal attributes’’. Finally, the variables ‘‘Work experience’’, “Age group”, and “Participant’s sex” present the highest negative loadings in relation to PC2.
The CATPCA program generates scores for variable categories, which are then used to create a dispersion diagram.
Figure 3 shows the coordinates for each variable category along each dimension. Several variable categories exhibit consistency in their scores (
Table 6). With regard to the first dimension, there is consistency (value of the variable categories below –0.5 or above 0.5 in both dimensions) between the following categories: “Resin production: 10.1–15 t and more than 15 t”, “Job difficulty: Very difficult”, “Young people: No”, and “Forest worker: Yes” (Group 2) on the one hand and “Young people: Yes”, “Forest worker: No”, “Job difficulty: medium and low”, and “Resin tapper: Yes” (Group 4) on the other.
Two additional groups are formed based on the second dimension. Group 1 consists of the categories ‘‘Work experience: 1–10 years”, “Cooperative member: No”, “Age group: < 30”, and “Resin tapper: Yes”, while Group 3 consists of the categories “Work experience: 21–30 and 30+ years”, “Age group: 51–60 and 60+”, and “Sex: Female”.
5. Conclusions
The traditional profession of resin tapping is closely linked to important social, cultural, and economic ecosystem services. It is currently extinct in many developed countries, though efforts are being made to revive it. Although pine tapping activity in Greece has remained active for thousands of years, after the fire of August 2021 the future of the profession in northern Evia, the larger contributor to national resin production, remains largely insecure.
Resin tappers are willing to make a professional shift to forest operations, a finding that could serve as a basis for developing policies and support measures to retain existing human resources and attract younger people to forestry-related professions. However, until the burnt areas recover satisfactorily the outlook for resin tapping is not encouraging. Therefore, policymakers and forest managers may need to focus on promoting other forestry-related professions and expanding the working territory of resin tappers to other areas suitable for tapping, such as those with steeper terrain or tree varieties with lower resin production. Additionally, gender issues should be examined to increase female employment in forestry professions.
Further research is needed in order to define concrete environmental, social, and economic objectives and to provide welfare to the local communities. Valuation of the facilitated ecosystem services could help policymakers in these efforts.
The introduction of a training system for forest workers will undoubtedly upgrade the professional capacity of resin tappers and increase their professional flexibility in the coming years. Likewise, prioritizing financial incentives could assist those communities affected by the fire by providing access to necessary forestry equipment. Thus far, the seven-year-old employment program is the sole element of job security for these rural populations, and there is no assurance of its continuation; thus, state authorities will play a pivotal role in the attainment of this objective. In conclusion, efforts should be made to ensure that continuous employment is guaranteed, otherwise valuable human capital will quit the forestry sector and invaluable ecosystem services will be threatened.