Cultural Capital of Sea Salt Farming in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province as per the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)

Abstract

This study delved into the cultural capital, value systems, and social organizations in sea salt farming in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province, considered within the framework of GIAHS. The research methodology involved qualitative tools such as in-depth interviews, SWOT analysis, and TOWS matrix, and focus group discussions with key stakeholders such as salt farmers, community leaders, local government officials, and scholars. The study underlines that the sea salt production in Ban Laem District is deeply rooted in both tangible and intangible cultural traits, contributing to the area’s distinct cultural identity. The traditional ceremonies, foods, crafts, and tools associated with salt production form the tangible cultural aspects unique to the area. Sea salt farming’s historical, aesthetic, scientific, economic, and social values accentuate its community-wide importance. However, challenges such as traditional knowledge and practice erosion, skilled labor scarcity, limited comprehension of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), environmental degradation, and globalization’s impact threaten the cultural authenticity of the salt farming community. To counter these challenges, this study recommends preservation of traditional knowledge, cultural value awareness, reinforced environmental conservation, and fostering collaborations among salt farmers, governmental bodies, and the private sector. Collectively, these efforts will contribute to the sustainability and resilience of Ban Laem’s sea salt cultural heritage.

1. Introduction

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) established the GIAHS program with the primary objective of promoting, conserving, and preserving agricultural heritage for food security and economic development [1]. The program aims to protect and promote the use of biological resources that are consistent with local culture, while also promoting the sustainable conservation and utilization of natural resources. Currently, the program has been registered in 24 countries and 74 sites. One of Thailand’s well-known areas registered under the GIAHS program is the Thale Noi Wetland Pastoral Buffalo Agro-Ecosystem [2] in Phatthalung Province. When an area is designated as part of the GIAHS, it not only benefits the environment but also creates economic opportunities. Small farmers, indigenous communities, and residents of the GIAHS area can connect with the wider economy by accessing a range of market opportunities. Produce that has been certified under the GIAHS is highly valued and can serve as a tourist attraction, which in turn leads to employment creation and income growth for people in the community [1].

Thailand’s extensive coastline and tropical climate provide an ideal environment for sea salt production, which has been a significant agricultural activity in the country since the Ayutthaya dynasty in 1409 [3]. The production of sea salt has played a crucial role in the country’s agricultural and economic development for centuries. The production of sea salt remains a crucial aspect of Thailand’s cultural and agricultural heritage. Given the importance of sea salt farming in Thailand, the Thai Sea Salt Development Committee has resolved to nominate a traditional Thai sea salt farming expanse for registration as a world agricultural heritage site by the FAO’s GIAHS. The nomination process involves fulfilling five criteria for GIAHS registration. If successful, this registration would further cement the significance of sea salt farming in Thailand’s cultural, economic, and agricultural history.

The GIAHS has five criteria to be assessed for the registration of agricultural heritage systems of global importance: (1) food and livelihood security, (2) agro-biodiversity, (3) local and traditional knowledge systems, (4) cultures, value systems, and social organizations, and (5) landscape and seascape features [1]. For a system to be registered as a GIAHS, it must fulfill all five of these criteria. These criteria promote desirable economic and social outcomes, which include food security, economic and social conditions (or livelihood), local knowledge capital, and cultural, agricultural, and community capital that can contribute to the development and empowerment of the economy. They also correspond to cultural capital transformation with social solutions and natural resource management. Moreover, they align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 2, which aims to end hunger, achieve food security, and improve nutrition.

All criteria but the fourth one are relatively more straightforward to defend for any agroecosystem of Thailand, since there exists a reasonable availability of empirical and scientific evidence for use as primary or background information. The fourth criterion, in contrast, must be defended on the ground of local-specific and local-uniqueness information for understanding and interpretation or analysis according to the guidelines given below.

To meet the fourth criterion for GIAHS registration, the agricultural system should be deeply rooted in the cultural heritage and traditions of local communities. It should have a significant impact on the social fabric of the community, including its cultural practices, festivals, and ceremonies. The agricultural system should also contribute to the preservation of cultural heritage, including tangible and intangible cultural artifacts, language, and customs. Furthermore, the agricultural system should provide social benefits to the community, such as the creation of social cohesion, the promotion of community participation, and the provision of social services. It should also support local economies by creating jobs, generating income, and contributing to the development of local industries and markets.

The concept of the fourth criterion for GIAHS registration is closely related to cultural capital. Cultural capital refers to the nonfinancial assets of a community, including cultural heritage, traditions, knowledge, and social networks [4]. In the context of GIAHS registration, cultural capital plays an important role in demonstrating the cultural and social significance of the agricultural system. The preservation and maintenance of cultural capital, including tangible and intangible cultural heritage, is an essential aspect of meeting the cultural and social significance criterion. For example, in the case of sea salt farming in Thailand, the preservation of traditional knowledge and practices related to sea salt farming is crucial to meeting the cultural and social significance criterion. This includes knowledge of the best times to harvest salt, techniques for drying and processing salt, and traditional practices related to salt production.

Based on reports from the Thai Sea Salt Development Committee, sea salt production in Thailand involves 946 households with salt farms spreading across 1595 plots of land, covering a total area of 47,210.3 rai [5]. The majority of sea salt production, approximately 98 percent, occurs in three provinces, namely, Phetchaburi, Samut Sakhon, and Samut Songkhram. The remaining 2 percent of production is from salt fields running across four other sea salt-producing provinces. Phetchaburi, with a production area of over 15,000 rai, accounted for 32.55% of the total area during the 2019–2020 sea salt production year [5]. According to the Office of the Secretary of the Thai Sea Salt Development Board in 2022, the cost of producing salt from the sea was 0.87 baht/kg, with an average yield of 14.78 tons per rai [6]. Despite its long history and significance to Thailand’s cultural and agricultural heritage, traditional sea salt farming is facing various challenges. The fast-changing world, unpredictable climate changes, and degradation of natural resources and the environment caused by uncontrolled economic development are all contributing factors. The salt farming industry is thus encountering significant difficulties, as reported by various sources, including the Office of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Phetchaburi Province in 2017, Siamrath in 2019, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives in 2018 [7,8,9].

The salt farming community in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province is undergoing changes in human livelihoods, culture, trade, and agricultural ecology due to external cultural trends. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the situation, leading to debt issues among salt farmers. In addition, the domestic market for sea salt faces stiff competition from rock salt, which has lower production costs, as well as imported salt from India. This has resulted in a decline in sea salt prices and a reduction in the area dedicated to sea salt farming, rendering the profession unsustainable. The debt problem among salt farmers in Ban Laem District is severe, with 207 farms owing a total liability of 256,798,004 baht (7,395,783 dollars). This includes debts from salt sales exceeding 34,301 dollars, averaging 2,415,458.94 baht (69,565 dollars) per person [7]. Furthermore, young people are not interested in continuing the salt farming profession due to the physically demanding work, challenging working conditions, unpredictable weather, and potential financial losses. Sea salt production in Ban Laem District is viewed as a low-value upstream industry.

To tackle the issues facing the salt farming industry in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province, farmers and communities are exploring ways to link their salt products and stories with local culture and the tourism industry, using their cultural capital as a basis. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on the characteristics of culture, cultural capital, and value systems of the traditional sea salt farming communities in Thailand. As the matter of cultures, value systems, and social organizations is among the five core criteria that must be detailed for GIAHS registration, three important research questions arise. What are the cultural capital and value systems associated with sea salt farming in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province? What challenges and opportunities exist for preserving and maintaining cultural capital related to sea salt farming in light of changing economic, environmental, and social conditions? How do local organizations contribute to and support cultural capital and value systems associated with sea salt farming? Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework of this research from previous research [4,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17].

This study aimed to examine the cultural capital and value systems tied to sea salt farming in Ban Laem District within the context of the GIAHS, explore the challenges and opportunities for preserving such cultural capital, and examine the roles of local organizations in supporting and nurturing these cultural values. By exploring the characteristics of cultural capital and value systems, this study sought to identify the significance of sea salt farming in the region and address the challenges and opportunities for preserving and maintaining the embedded cultural capital. Furthermore, this study proposes policies that can support the government’s efforts toward GIAHS registration. By doing so, this study will contribute to the preservation and promotion of traditional knowledge and practices related to sea salt farming, which will ultimately support the sustainable development of the salt farming industry and local communities in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province.

The main findings of this study highlight the rich cultural capital and value systems associated with sea salt farming in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province. The sea salt culture in this area encompasses a mix of tangible and intangible assets, including traditional practices, unique tools, shared knowledge, and distinct traditions and ceremonies. The historical, aesthetic, scientific, social, and economic values of sea salt production are evident in the breathtaking salt field landscapes, the strong community bonds it fosters, and the economic benefits it provides. The study also reveals the pivotal roles played by social organizations, such as the Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative and Community Enterprise of Kanghuntong, and the collaborative efforts with universities and local government agencies in supporting salt farmers and ensuring the sustainable development of the industry. However, the study also identifies challenges, such as limited cooperation among farmer organizations, environmental degradation impacting salt resources, and threats from modernization and globalization, which pose risks to the preservation of traditional practices and the cultural heritage associated with sea salt farming.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Cultural Capital

Cultural capital is defined as any asset that embodies or generates cultural value beyond its economic value [9,10]. It can be categorized into two types: tangible cultural capital, which comprises physical objects such as cultural heritage, artifacts, and works of art that can be measured in monetary terms, and intangible cultural capital, which includes customs, traditions, beliefs, and practices that are more difficult to quantify [18]. On the other hand, Bourdieu [19] categorized cultural capital into three distinct states: (1) embodied state, which pertains to cultural capital integrated into physical and mental expressions; (2) objectified state, which refers to cultural capital materialized in physical objects; and (3) institutionalized state, which pertains to cultural capital institutionalized in education and other establishments. The existence of cultural capital has led to the creation of value-added goods and services [20,21], enhanced local livelihood [22], and improved access to factors of production [23].

Agriculture is a form of cultural capital that includes tangible and intangible elements [11]. Cultural capital is highly valuable in the agricultural sector, as it enables communities to showcase their cultural heritage and create economic opportunities. By preserving cultural traditions, knowledge systems, and practices, communities can develop distinct and marketable agricultural products that enhance their overall well-being and cultural identity [24]. The GIAHS program plays a significant role in shaping cultural identities, beliefs, and traditions associated with agriculture, consisting of 74 systems in 24 countries, each with its unique characteristics [2]. It is closely connected to food culture and societal customs. Various agricultural heritage programs worldwide, such as the farmers’ rice cultivation on Sado Island in Japan, known for the Toki branding, encompass a range of crops such as persimmons, apples, pears, cherries, oranges, strawberries, watermelons, and shiitake mushrooms [25]. Similarly, the Xuanhua vineyard culture in China represents another agricultural culture within the GIAHS framework [26]. Recognizing and showcasing agricultural cultural capital, guided by the concept of GIAHS, is crucial in preserving local identity, traditional knowledge, and sustainable agricultural practices, fostering a sense of pride and cultural continuity.

2.2. The Value Systems

The value system of agriculture is rooted in the concept of cultural significance, which evaluates the meaning of a place across various dimensions such as aesthetics, social dynamics, academic significance, and historical value [27]. It encompasses a set of beliefs, practices, and norms that shape the significance of agriculture within a specific culture. Understanding the value system of agriculture provides insights into how agricultural practices are perceived, valued, and integrated into the cultural fabric of a community, highlighting its broader cultural context and embodying cultural heritage [28]. In evaluating the value system of sea salt culture, the framework of cultural heritage management is applied to assess its significance and meaning across the past, present, and future [29]. Cultural significance encompasses four aspects: aesthetic value, historical value, academic value, and social value [13,14,15]. For example, the assessment conducted by Yongxun et al. [12] highlights the multidimensional value of the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System as a GIAHS site. The economic, ecological, aesthetic, cultural, research, and social values associated with the terraces underscore its significance as a unique agricultural landscape that embodies sustainable development, cultural heritage, and community well-being. Cultural capital, which includes the expertise, traditions, and artistic expressions of local populations, plays a vital role in preserving traditional arts and culture, promoting the economy, and supporting the tourism and services sectors.

The GIAHS program acknowledges the vital role of culture in sustainable development, particularly in the preservation of traditional agricultural knowledge, cultural values, and identities embedded within it [16]. Evaluating the cultural significance serves as an additional method for assessing the value of an agricultural system. By considering aesthetic, historical, scientific, social, and economic dimensions, the value system helps to reveal the essence of a place and enhance the overall quality of life within nations.

2.3. Sea Salt Culture

Sea salt production in Phetchaburi, Thailand, holds a profound historical legacy that traces its roots back to the Ayutthaya period, spanning from the 14th to the 18th centuries. During this era, the Kingdom of Ayutthaya witnessed remarkable progress in politics, culture, and economy. The demand for sea salt within Ayutthaya became apparent, leading the royal court to commission a sea salt experiment in the city of Phetchaburi. Phra Panom Thalae Sii, a relative of the Suphannaphoom dynasty during the reign of King Phra Intrarajathirat (1409–1424), was entrusted with this significant endeavor. Eventually, Phra Panom Thalae Sii became the first king of Phetchaburi City. The scarcity of sea salt in Ayutthaya is supported by Chinese records, which revealed that Somdet Phra Borom Trai Lokanart (1448–1488) was accused by a Chinese emperor of smuggling sea salt into Ayutthaya. This highlights Ayutthaya’s heavy reliance on external sources to fulfill its vital salt requirements [30].

The salt shortage in Ayutthaya worsened due to conflicts with the neighboring Lanna Kingdom, particularly in cities such as Nan and Phrae, which were important rock salt producers. As these cities came under the control of King Tilokarat of Lanna, Ayutthaya’s need for sea salt became even more urgent [31]. To address this, a sea salt experiment was initiated in Phetchaburi to ensure a local supply for Ayutthaya, as its previous territories were no longer available [31]. This historical significance highlights Ayutthaya’s strategic efforts to meet the kingdom’s demand for salt, marking an important chapter in its political and economic history.

Later, the Rattanakosin period witnessed a notable surge in sea salt production. Kiattisahakul [3] conducted a study shedding light on Phetchaburi’s sea salt industry, spanning from the reign of King Rama IV to the post-World War II era, and found that during this period, sea salt evolved into a highly sought-after commodity that greatly bolstered the state’s revenue. Through a government-established monopoly auction system for sea salt, an annual selection process identified the highest bidder, who was then obliged to pay taxes to the Treasury [3]. Particularly in the latter years of King Rama VI’s rule, sea salt played a crucial role in both local and foreign trade. Ratchaburi Monthol, a collection of five provinces including Ratchaburi, Phetchaburi, Kanchanaburi, Pranburi (later changed to Prachuap Khiri Khan), and Samut Songkhram, produced about 22,500 tons of sea salt annually at the beginning of King Rama VII’s reign. The sea salt industry helped Samut Songkhram and Phetchaburi bring in about 120,000 baht locally each year. The majority of the sea salt produced was exported to the Malay Peninsula and distributed throughout the provinces and adjacent cities [32].

Sea salt was given priority as an export good to other nations by the Thai government in 1949, following the end of World War II. Thailand’s sea salt exports frequently were sent to Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Penang, Indochina, and Japan. The biggest markets for Thai sea salt have been revealed to be Hong Kong and Singapore in particular. As a result, in the decades following World War II, Thailand’s export of sea salt grew significantly [3].

Nowadays, Phetchaburi, located on Thailand’s western coast, benefits from its strategic position abundant in seawater resources, making it an ideal location for salt production. The initial stages of sea salt experimentation and development took place in the Laem Phak Bia Subdistrict, situated within Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province [30]. These innovative projects represent the beginnings of the region’s long-standing practice of sea salt farming, showcasing its historical significance and continuing cultural heritage. A wealth of cultural knowledge has been accumulated over many generations of salt farmers who have dedicated themselves to developing and improving the craft of sea salt farming. This expertise is passed down to the current generation of salt farmers.

The cultural capital associated with sea salt farming encompasses both tangible and intangible elements. Tangible cultural capital involves the tools and craftsmanship essential for the practice. These tools include the kata for hoisting and piling up salt, the tao for shoveling soil or salt, shovels for digging, the erun for breaking salt crystals, the ngure for lining up salt, and posts and wicker baskets or carts for salt transportation. Additionally, tools such as mercury are used for measuring water salinity, water turbines aid in water transfer, and rollers or roller machines are utilized for compacting soil. Salt storage rooms are also crucial for storing salt before sale, contributing to the tangible cultural capital of sea salt farming [17].

Conversely, intangible cultural capital finds its roots in the beliefs, traditions, and rituals that form the essence of salt farming. Rituals such as Raek Na Kleua, Tum Kwan Na Kleua, the salt storeroom opening, and the ceremonial act of stepping on the salt plate to break it before the actual harvest [31,33] exemplify the intangible cultural practices intertwined with sea salt farming. These time-honored rituals have been passed down through generations, serving as essential pillars in safeguarding the cultural heritage and traditions associated with sea salt farming.

2.4. Sea Salt Production Techniques

In the central part of Thailand, specifically within Phetchaburi Province, sea salt farming follows a seasonal pattern, beginning in early November and extending until mid-May of the following year, with salt harvesting commencing around mid-January. The traditional method of producing sea salt in Thailand heavily relies on indigenous knowledge and natural resources, making it an effort-intensive undertaking. The production process involves the factors of production, including labor, land, energy sources, and technology, to achieve optimal yield.

In Phetchaburi, sea salt production employs two main methods: the traditional method using mud soil and the new method involving high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembranes that efficiently utilize solar energy. The traditional approach requires a minimum of 30 rai or 4.8 hectares of land, divided into concentration and crystallization ponds. The process begins with the collection of seawater during high tide, which is directed into the first salt reservoir called Na-Wang. The water in Na-Wang is allowed to settle, separating sediments and contaminants, resulting in a pool of purified seawater on top. This purified water is then transferred to the next reservoir, Na-Tak, with the help of wind turbines or water pumps. As the sun’s radiant heat beats down on the reservoirs, the water gradually evaporates. When the salt concentration in the water reaches an optimal level, the brine is moved to the Na-Rongchea and Na-Chea ponds. Here, the salinity intensifies, and the concentrated brine is eventually transferred to the final pond. The final pond, Na-Pong, is where salt production takes place, and it requires water with a salinity measurement of at least 25 degrees Baumé (°B) to ensure optimal salt crystal formation. This natural process leads to highly concentrated brine and significant salt crystallization, requiring skillful optimization by experienced salt producers to produce high-quality sea salt [7].

In the contemporary process of sea salt production, the utilization of HDPE (high-density polyethylene) geomembranes has become a prevalent technology in Na-Pong ponds. These geomembranes are synthetic liners composed of durable and impermeable high-density polyethylene material. By employing HDPE geomembranes, salt evaporation ponds or basins are created, offering numerous advantages. The use of HDPE geomembranes provides a controlled and efficient environment for salt crystallization, enhancing production efficiency and reducing costs [34,35]. Recognizing the potential benefits, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives partnered with the Thai Phetchaburi Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative Ltd. in Phetchaburi Province to launch a program aimed at promoting the widespread adoption of HDPE geomembranes in sea salt production [34]. This collaborative effort demonstrates a commitment to leveraging modern technologies to improve the sea salt production process and drive economic efficiency in the industry.

2.5. Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS)

Traditional agricultural practices have played a crucial role in developing sustainable agricultural systems that meet the criteria for recognition as GIAHS [36]. Established by the FAO of the United Nations in 2002, GIAHS aims to acknowledge and safeguard traditional agricultural practices and systems with significant social, cultural, and environmental value. These systems demonstrate a harmonious balance between human activities and the natural environment, showcasing resilience, adaptability, and the ability to address challenges related to food security, poverty reduction, and biodiversity conservation [37].

The responsibility for identifying and certifying GIAHS sites lies with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Potential locations are assessed through a process involving proposal review and expert on-site evaluations. To be considered, a site must submit a proposal to the GIAHS Secretariat, which is then reviewed and forwarded to the Scientific Advisory Group (SAG). The SAG evaluates the site based on five core criteria: food and livelihood security, agro-biodiversity, local and traditional knowledge systems, cultures, value systems and social organizations, and landscape and seascape features. An action plan for dynamic conservation is also a crucial component of the proposal. If the proposal passes this stage, a team of experts, including SAG members, visits the site for an assessment and prepares an evaluation report [38] of the integration of cultures, social organizations, and value systems within agricultural systems. Hence, the exploitation of cultures, value systems, and social organizations within this study can provide academic substantiation for the inclusion of Thai sea salt farming in the GIAHS.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection and Study Area

Thailand plays a prominent role as a global producer and exporter of sea salt. Sea salt farming is widely practiced across different provinces in Thailand, including Phetchaburi, Samut Songkhram, and Samut Sakhon. The production of sea salt holds immense cultural and agricultural significance within the country, reflecting its rich heritage. Recognizing the importance of sea salt farming, the Thai Sea Salt Development Committee has taken the initiative to propose the nomination of a traditional Thai sea salt farming area for registration as a GIAHS program.

The data collection for sea salt cultural capital took place from March 2022 to April 2022. The study area covered five subdistricts with the highest concentration of sea salt production areas in Phetchaburi Province, namely, Ban Laem, Pak Thale, Bang Khun Sai, Bang Kaeo, and Laem Phak Bia. The 11 participants in the in-depth interviews were experienced sea salt farmers who possessed firsthand knowledge and experience in sea salt production. The remaining 24 participants were selected based on their expertise and familiarity with sea salt, including researchers affiliated with the Sea Salt Center of Excellence at Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, representatives of various administrative organizations (Ban Laem Municipality, Bang Kaew Subdistrict Administrative Organization, Bang Khun Sai Subdistrict Administrative Organization, Laem Phak Bia Subdistrict Administrative Organization, and Pak Thale Subdistrict Administrative Organization), members of the Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative in Phetchaburi, participants from the Community Enterprise of Kanghuntong, officials from agricultural extension offices and research centers, and representatives of Ban Laem Fisheries District Office and Mangrove Forest Resource Development Station 6 in Phetchaburi.

The selected participants provided valuable insights and perspectives, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the heritage and traditional culture of sea salt production and the related practices, agricultural culture, and values associated with it. The study examined various aspects, including basic economic data and the economic challenges faced in sea salt production. It also explored the cultural aspects of salt production, focusing on cultural capital, values, and the involvement of local organizations.

The researchers employed a combination of participant observation, nonparticipatory data, and in-depth interviews to gather observations for the study. Participant observation involved engaging in conversations with community leaders and villagers to gain insights into their experiences. Nonparticipant observation was used to survey the overall conditions of the community. Additionally, this method was employed to gather information on the livelihoods of residents related to cultural heritage. Detailed notes were taken on relevant events, community dynamics, livelihood practices, traditions, and cultural aspects. In-depth interviews were conducted using a semistructured question format with flexible guidelines, allowing for a more comprehensive exploration of the research topics. Interviews were conducted with sea salt farmers and local community stakeholders to understand the state of sea salt cultural capital, its significance, and challenges and threats it faces.

The formulation of these questions was based on the concepts proposed by Leepanyaporn and Wongcha-um et al. [39,40]. The semistructured questionnaire employed in this study covered several areas, which included:

• Current socioeconomic conditions of salt farmers or respondents: This section aimed to gather information regarding the demographic and economic profiles of salt farmers.
• Cultural capital: This section focused on exploring the cultural elements associated with sea salt farming, such as local wisdom, customs, values, and the level of trust within the community. The objective was to understand how these cultural aspects shape the identity and practices of salt farmers.
• Importance of cultural capital: This section aimed to investigate the significance and value of cultural capital for salt farmers. Participants were encouraged to share their perspectives on how cultural capital enhances their livelihoods and contribute to the overall development of the community.
• Attractiveness to tourists: This section aimed to assess the appeal of the salt farming community as a tourist destination. Participants were requested to provide insights into the unique cultural aspects that may attract tourists and contribute to the local tourism industry.
• The potential of cultural capital and development opportunities: This section explored the potential of leveraging cultural capital to develop the salt farming community as a cultural tourism destination. Participants were encouraged to express their views on how cultural capital can be harnessed to create economic opportunities and promote sustainable development.

Through the formulation of comprehensive questions, this study aimed to conduct an extensive exploration of the economic, social, cultural, and potential of cultural capital and development opportunities associated with sea salt farming. This approach allows for insights into the multifaceted role of cultural capital within the community.

3.2. Data Analysis

Initially, the recorded interviews and transcripts were thoroughly analyzed to identify key issues related to the economic aspects of salt farming. These issues were compiled and categorized, focusing on such areas as sea salt production, employment, traditions, tangible and intangible cultural aspects, and local organizations. The information was verified using a triangulation process, which involves comparing findings from different sources and perspectives to ensure credibility and validity. This process involved combining overlapping observation methods, theories, methods, and empirical material to enhance the robustness of the study [41]. The accuracy of the data was verified through paraphrasing and cross-referencing relevant articles to ensure the integrity and meaning of the information. This process aimed to highlight the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with sea salt farming. Furthermore, feedback and input from individuals involved in salt farming were considered, contributing to the comprehensive analysis of the data.

The questionnaire data collected for this study covered various characteristics related to sea salt farming and cultural capital. Most of the data collected consisted of qualitative information, providing insights into cultural capital, social values, and the significant collaboration of local social organizations. Comprehensive questions were based on concepts proposed by Leepanyaporn and Wongchaum et al. [39,40]. This involved analyzing recorded interviews and transcripts to identify key economic issues in salt farming, including sea salt production, employment, traditions, cultural aspects, and local organizations. The questionnaire provided insights into the current socioeconomic conditions of salt farmers, explored cultural capital elements such as local wisdom and customs, assessed their significance, evaluated the community’s attractiveness as a tourist destination, and examined the potential for leveraging cultural capital for development. The data informed the study’s conclusions and policy recommendations.

Data synthesis involved analyzing documents, observations, interviews, and technical papers using content analysis to identify themes and correlations. The importance of sea salt cultural capital was categorized across historical, aesthetic, scientific, economic, and social aspects, guided by concepts presented by Yongxun et al. and ICOMOS [12,14]. In the final step, different types of cultural capital were synthesized, employing the tangible and intangible cultural capital framework defined by Throsby and Reyes et al. [9,11].

4. Results

4.1. The Characteristics of Cultural Capital

The classification of sea salt culture encompasses both tangible and intangible aspects, highlighting its commonly recognized name and diverse forms of cultural heritage. These cultural elements hold considerable value at the local level and are intricately linked with rituals and food culture. Festivals associated with sea salt are widely recognized and celebrated, extending beyond the municipal level. The tangible and intangible elements of cultural heritage identified in the study, as depicted in Figure 2, can be classified into distinct groups that represent the distinctive characteristics of cultural capital [6,17,31]. The ceremonies and traditions associated with sea salt production include the Salt Field Ceremony, Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony, Sea Salt Barn Opening Ceremony, and Sea Salt Barn Closing Ceremony. These traditions and cultures have concepts and practices that are consistent with the sea salt farming process before salt farming, harvest, and storage in the barn. These rituals are considered cultural capital and integral parts of the cultural heritage associated with sea salt production. They represent the customs, rituals, and agricultural practices passed down through generations, reflecting the values, beliefs, and identity of the salt farming community. These agricultural cultural elements hold significant value and contribute to the preservation and promotion of cultural heritage, thus strengthening the cultural capital of the community.

4.1.1. Ceremony and Tradition

(1)

The Salt Field Ceremony: The Salt Field Ceremony is shown in Figure 3A as a customary event that takes place in regions where salt production holds substantial economic and cultural significance. This ceremony serves as a way to pay homage and seek blessings for a prosperous salt harvesting season. The specific customs and rituals of the Salt Field Ceremony may slightly differ from region to region, reflecting local traditions. Typically, this ceremony involves a sequence of rituals and offerings led by salt farmers, community members, or religious leaders. The commencement of the Salt Field Ceremony usually aligns with the beginning of the salt production season, which commonly occurs in November. The salt farmer selects an auspicious day to begin the ceremony, with the proceedings starting early in the morning, often at 7 a.m. The farmer and his family walk down the mud dyke, facing the east, a direction often associated with new beginnings. Auspicious flowers are placed on the mud dyke as part of a prayer to the deities or spirits linked with salt production. This prayer is for the salt farming process to progress smoothly, without hindrance, and yield bountiful results. After the completion of these rituals, the soil in the salt fields, known as kannas, is ceremonially dug up, symbolizing the conclusion of the ceremony. This event serves as a meaningful opportunity to strengthen familial bonds, exchange local customs and traditions, and pass down cultural wisdom about salt production to future generations. The Salt Field Ceremony not only commemorates the importance of salt production but also acknowledges the hard work, expertise, and commitment of salt farmers. It underscores the profound connection between the family, the land, and the cultural heritage intertwined with salt farming. This ceremony signifies the pivotal role of salt production in the local economy and the preservation of cultural traditions.

(2)

The Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony: The Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony, as depicted in Figure 3B, holds deep significance for salt farmers and is a ritual that has been passed down through generations. This ceremony is rooted in the salt farmers’ profound reverence for their ancestors. They firmly believe that Ta Phuk, the pioneer of Naklua, was the first salt farmer and is deserving of great respect and honor. Sea salt farmers also hold the belief that sea salt contains spirits representing the Sun, Ganga, Mother Earth, and Wayu, which merge into male and female salt. However, during the initial harvesting process of each production cycle, tools, and equipment are employed to separate the male and female sea salt crystals. Unfortunately, this action leads to the gradual fading of the sea salt spirit. To address this, a ritual known as the Kwan Na Kluea ceremony is performed. Typically, the ceremony takes place in the morning of a day in February, corresponding with the time when salt farmers can harvest the first crop of the cycle. Following tradition, the farmers and their families prepare two types of dishes, one savory and one sweet, which are then placed in the barn alongside the newly harvested salt. A significant part of this ritual involves paying respect to the Ta Phuk house spirit, a prominent fixture standing at the entrance of the barn. Its purpose is to summon the spirit of salt once again, and during the ceremony, the Ta Phuk spirit house is worshipped in the salt fields, seeking blessings and good fortune. The primary objective of this ritual is to invoke fertility in crop production and ensure prosperity in salt farming endeavors. It is strongly believed that the Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony serves as a protective shield against any obstacles or challenges that may hinder the success of salt farmers.

(3)

Perd Yoong Chang Ceremony or Sea Salt Barn Opening Ceremony: This holds great significance for salt farmers before they bring their salt to market. Traditionally, this ceremony takes place in November, signaling the conclusion of the salt farming season. The sacrificial ritual begins early in the morning, with salt farmers and their families setting up offerings on mats placed in front of the salt barns. These offerings of food are presented to the gods as a gesture of gratitude for the divine protection believed to safeguard their yield. The farmers hold a deep conviction that these sacred entities play a critical role in preserving the quality and purity of the salt. Out of reverence for the blessings bestowed by these divine entities in safeguarding their crops, the farmers engage in worship. This ceremony signifies the opening of sea salt production. In the past, the sale of salt from the barn would only commence after the salt had been stored in the barn for a period of 6 months to a year. This period was viewed as an indication of the salt’s complete dryness and a testament to its high quality, thereby deeming it ready for sale.

(4)

Culture of Salt Scraping and Salt Carrying: Figure 3C and Figure 3D, respectively, illustrate traditional sea salt harvesting practices in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi, which have given rise to a distinct local culture known as the culture of salt scraping and salt carrying. Typically, the period from January to May marks the salt harvesting season. This activity occurs monthly on average in the Na-Pong area. Capitalizing on the cool temperatures and absence of strong sunlight in the early hours, the salt farmer arranges for the salt-scraping laborers to begin work. As evening descends, these workers transfer the harvested salt to the barn. They await the slight drying of the brine before the salt is relocated to the next barn for storage. In the past, salt scraping and carrying activities were often collaborative efforts within kinship networks or among salt farmers, reflecting a sense of community and mutual support. However, with the emergence of economic competition and unpredictable weather conditions, this culture has evolved into a unique economic activity specific to the region. The process of salt production in Ban Laem remains labor-intensive, requiring manual labor and physical effort. As a result, it has become a significant source of employment for many local individuals. The culture of salt scraping and salt carrying has transformed into an economic activity that sustains livelihoods and supports the local economy. This cultural practice not only serves as a means of income generation but also strengthens the identity and sense of belonging within the community. It embodies the resilience and adaptability of the local people in the face of changing circumstances, reflecting their ability to preserve and evolve traditional practices while embracing new economic realities. The culture of salt scraping and salt carrying showcases the rich cultural heritage of Ban Laem, highlighting the interplay between tradition, economic necessity, and community dynamics. It symbolizes the community’s dedication to preserving their unique way of life and fostering sustainable employment opportunities.

4.1.2. Spirit Houses

As per the beliefs held by salt farmers, Ta Phuk or Ta Phuk spirit houses are depicted in Figure 3E and Figure 3F, respectively. Ta Phuk is revered as a pioneer of salt farming who imparted salt farming techniques and established a career path in salt farming. When the time for the Kwan Kluea Ceremony arrives, it is customary to pay homage to Ta Phuk and seek blessings from the divine deities responsible for the prosperous yield in the fields. This sacred ceremony serves as a commemoration of Ta Phuk’s benevolence, expressing deep gratitude for the knowledge imparted and wishing for seamless salt farming operations without any hindrances. The Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony is intertwined with the ritualistic act of paying homage to the Ta Phuk Shrine, serving as a symbolic gesture to honor and express appreciation to Ta Phuk for sharing the wisdom and expertise of sea salt farming. This ceremony is conducted alongside the Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony. It is through this wisdom that salt farmers find empowerment to pursue their livelihoods and lead fulfilling lives in harmony with the cherished traditions passed down through generations. The spirit house is usually built from four bamboo poles as a base without a roof. However, in modern times, Ta Phuk spirit houses are often constructed with roofs similar to those of houses to shield them from extreme weather conditions.

4.1.3. Traditional Foods

The food cultural capital of Ban Laem, Phetchaburi is showcased through the diverse applications of sea salt in local cuisine, even though it is not a primary ingredient, as depicted in Figure 3G–I. Sea salt holds significant importance and is utilized in various culinary practices. One of its primary roles is in cleaning and deodorizing seafood, effectively removing any unpleasant fishy smell. This allows for the preparation of fresh and flavorsome seafood dishes. Additionally, sea salt plays a crucial role in the process of fermenting krill to create shrimp paste, a traditional ingredient widely used in Thai cuisine. The fermentation process enhances the flavors and textures of the shrimp paste, adding a distinct umami taste to dishes. The incorporation of sea salt in these culinary practices reflects the cultural significance of preserving and enhancing the flavors of local ingredients. The knowledge and techniques passed down through generations have enabled the community to utilize sea salt in ways that elevate the taste and quality of their traditional cuisine.

4.1.4. Crafts and Tools

The sea salt farming community in Ban Laem has successfully utilized local materials that are readily available and durable for making their salt farming tools. These materials, such as tamarind wood, bamboo, stainless steel, fiberglass, and PVC pipe, are chosen for their strength and resistance to corrosion from the salinity of sea salt. Essential tools used in sea salt farming are depicted in Figure 3J–R. These depict the kata for hoisting and piling up salt, the phlua for shoveling soil or salt, a shovel for digging, the erun for breaking salt crystals, the wua for lining up salt, the shoulder pole and wicker baskets for carrying salt, the roller machines for compacting soil, the light roller machines for compacting wet soil, and the salt barns for storing salt. In the past, wind turbines or water turbines were used to transfer and load water, but these have since been replaced by water pumps. This change underscores the fact that the sea salt farming community has adopted technology to enhance their operations and reduce work time, as exemplified by the transition from water turbines to water pumps and the use of roller machines.

4.1.5. Local Knowledge and Practices

The traditional sea salt farming process begins by collecting seawater from the ocean and placing it in large, shallow ponds. These ponds are usually located in warm, sunny climates near shorelines or canals, as heat and sunlight are essential for the evaporation process. As the water evaporates, it leaves behind dissolved minerals and impurities, including salt. Salt crystals form on the water’s surface and can be harvested by raking off the top or scooping them up with a net. Salt farming has been practiced in Ban Laem District for centuries. According to the salt calendar, salt farmers need to prepare an area of about 30 rai starting from the late rainy season, early winter, or October. The salt farm area is divided into five main ponds. Parts 1 to 4 act on the water storage sludge, and Part 5 is where the salt crystallizes. Salt farmers in Phetchaburi typically refer to the salt farm area as a whole as a “plot,” which is then divided into smaller subunits called krathong. Most krathong are rectangular in shape and divided into pairs, with a salt dyke dividing the boundaries of each krathong with descending areas to facilitate water resource management and gaps in each krathong as a channel for managing water resources to other krathong. This design has been handed down from generation to generation with the background of local knowledge handed down from generation to generation, leading to the salt farming culture of the present day.

4.2. Identifying the Value Systems of Sea Salt Farming and Addressing the Challenges and Opportunities

It was observed that the cultural capital related to sea salt farming in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province consists of multiple criteria that reflect the values associated with sea salt cultural capital. These values can be classified into five key aspects: historical value, aesthetic value, scientific value, social value, and economic value as follows.

• Historical value. Sea salt production in Phetchaburi, Thailand has significant historical value, as it dates back to at least the Ayutthaya period. Phetchaburi is located on the western coast of Thailand, which provides easy access to seawater for salt production. The beginning experiments were carried out in Laem Phak Bia Subdistrict, Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province [30]. Since the reign of King Rama IV, Phetchaburi’s sea salt has been a consistent source of tax revenue for the state. The state had opened a salt tax monopoly auction, and the highest bidder would become the “salt concessionaire.” However, it was found that the concessionaire collected more tax than the auction amount, resulting in most of the profits going to the concessionaire. King Chulalongkorn later saw the importance of collecting taxes more fully and established the Rassakorn Phiphat Hall under the Ministry of the Great Treasury to control the benefits of tax collection. As a result, the collection of sea salt tax was changed to “covenant tax” until after World War II. Since 1949, the state has promoted sea salt production and exports, with major markets including Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Penang, Indochina, and Japan [3]. Today, sea salt is still a major product in Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province, produced using knowledge and techniques passed down from ancestors. For this reason, historical records underscore the long-standing tradition of salt farming in Phetchaburi, dating back to the Ayutthaya period. This heritage, richly intertwined with various cultural aspects, is far from trivial. Hence, Thai governmental bodies such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Thailand, the Sea Salt Center of Excellence in Phetchaburi, the Phetchaburi Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative Ltd., and other interested entities have committed to preserving and promoting the historical value of salt farming. They accomplish this through the organization of ceremonies such as The Salt Field and Kwan Na Kluea [42,43].
• Aesthetic value. The sea salt production area in Phetchaburi lies in the beautiful and natural landscape of the salt fields. Located along Klong Khon-Cha-am Road (13°13′58.6″ N 99°58′05.2″ E), the salt fields in Ban Laem District offer a picturesque view of the surrounding scenery. Visitors can appreciate the colors of the water within the salt fields, as well as the vibrant hues of the sunrise and sunset reflecting off the fields. The production of salt and the sight of salt granaries add to the unique and charming beauty of the landscape. Additionally, the presence of mangrove forests covering the mud seashore and various shorebirds add to the serene and peaceful atmosphere of the area. During the harvest season, visitors can see salt mounds shaped like pyramids and observe the process of transporting salt to the granary, which showcase the cultural and historical significance of the area. The salt fields are not only a source of income for the local salt farmers but also a source of employment for local workers. This creates a lively atmosphere within the community during the harvest season. The coexistence of the salt farming community with other local industries, such as fishing and rice production, adds to the unique identity of the area. To highlight this, Thai government agencies including the Tourism Authority of Thailand, Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, Bang Kaeo Subdistrict Administrative Organization, and other related entities have promoted and supported the Art Of Salt tourism festival. This festival allows visitors to experience the lifestyle of the mud sea community and to view various sculptures adorned with sea salt, showcasing the true value of their aesthetic work. Overall, the aesthetic value of sea salt production in Phetchaburi is a combination of the natural beauty of the salt fields, the cultural and historical significance of the area, and the coexistence of various local industries.
• Scientific value. Salt farming communities in Phetchaburi Province have significant scientific value for researchers in various fields. Social science and science scholars can study the history and background of sea salt production in Phetchaburi Province, including its impact on the Thai economy [30,31]. These studies help in understanding the production methods, tools, equipment, harvesting, and barns that have been passed down through generations, enabling today’s salt farmers to produce high-quality salt for consumers. Additionally, researchers have learned that salt was an essential product for domestic industries and exports to other countries. The scientific value of salt farming communities extends beyond production techniques. Scholars have conducted ecological studies, including phylogenetic analysis and characterization of fungi in salt fields [44] and migratory birds that live in salt fields [45]. Additionally, studies have explored socioeconomic and marine ecosystems, such as the role of women in fishermen’s societies [46], and the economic value of mangrove forests [47]. Recently, there has been growing interest among scholars in exploring and advancing different aspects of sea salt production. The areas of study include efficiency comparisons between traditional and nontraditional sea salt production methods [34], establishing salt tourism routes and promotional platforms for selling and services along these routes, and developing advanced equipment for salt transportation, such as salt forklifts and wireless-controlled salt scoopers. Additionally, research into irrigation systems, specifically those with solar cells for use in salt fields, is being conducted. There is also an emphasis on data collection and analysis to enhance sea salt production sites, drawing from case studies such as Dok Kluea Village, a recognized World Heritage Site for agriculture. Further explorations are being conducted into the development of a sea salt production process within a closed-house system and the implementation of automatic salt production systems, underscoring the continuous innovation in this field [48]. In summary, the scientific value of salt farming communities in Phetchaburi Province provides opportunities for interdisciplinary research in social science, science, ecology, and community development. The knowledge gained from these studies not only benefits academia but also promotes sustainable development and preservation of the unique culture and environment of salt farming communities.
• Social value. The salt farming community is tightly knitted, akin to a family. The residents have strong relationships that arise from mutual trust and support. They interact well with one another, sharing a common language, natural environment, and economic circumstances. Salt plays a significant role in connecting people, both professionally and among the majority of the regional population. Sea salt is a commodity that builds spiritual connections between families and local labor groups. Every year during the sea salt production season, the salt farmers’ families join hands to prepare items for the ritual according to their beliefs. Family members come together to perform the ritual, which is regarded as a gathering of people within the family. The salt field remains one of Thailand’s labor-intensive agricultural areas. Salt farming is a profession that requires human physical effort, as it must be done in the sun, and there are no machines to completely replace human labor. As a result, individual employees form groups of salt workers covering land preparation, harvesting, and transportation, all of which form a relationship of mutual trust among the salt farmer society. The intimacy among them stems from working together for a long time. Bang Khun Sai subdistrict is a study area with significant ethnic diversity, including Chinese, Muslims, Malays, Laos, and Thais living together [49,50]. In the past, Ban Laem was a sea trade route where Mon traders brought seafood, dried fish, and sea salt of Phetchaburi to trade with various cities [51]. These trade routes may have led to the immigration or settlement of other races and nationalities. As a result, a variety of beliefs and religions exist within this society.
• Economic value. This value is viewed from the perspective of sea salt production capacity during the 2022–2023 production cycle, Thailand achieved a total sea salt production of 282,981.36 tons. This yield was divided into 105,683.39 tons of white salt, 168,990.58 tons of medium salt, 5849 tons of black salt, and 2458.4 tons of salt flowers. Of particular note, Phetchaburi Province played a significant role, demonstrating a production capacity of up to 84,000 tons, consisting of 22,400 tons of white salt and 61,600 tons of medium salt. This underlines Phetchaburi’s status as an essential sea salt producer in Thailand [4]. Moreover, the sea salt value system plays a significant role in the employment process in Ban Laem District, as depicted in Figure 4. During the sea salt production season, farmers hire employees to dredge channels, build dykes, and scuff fields to eliminate moss. Local employees may assist salt producers prepare the mud soil to pump salt water and crystallize it into sea salt. Thus, salt farmers who have sufficient land often hire agricultural laborers to assist in sea salt production. The agricultural preparatory labor group and the peasant production workforce (land preparation workers and casual workers) have been employed by these procedures, as illustrated in Figure 4A and Figure 4B, respectively. In Ban Laem District, salt producers coordinate their harvest operations with two local labor groups: the salt scraping workers and the salt carriers, as depicted in Figure 4C and Figure 4D, respectively. The farmer breaks apart tightly interwoven salt crystals and piles them up, while the salt carriers transport the sea salt stacks to the storage barn. Sea salt is sold in two forms: unpackaged and packaged for downstream industries. Buyers must communicate with the salt workers group to arrange for the movement of sea salt from the barn to the vehicle. As depicted in Figure 4E, transportation workers are responsible for moving the sea salt from the barns to the trucks. Finally, farmers sell the sea salt to the Phetchaburi Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative or middlemen, as shown in Figure 4F. The price of sea salt depends on its color and quality. White salt is the purest and most expensive and is used in spa treatments and culinary salt. Medium salt is cheaper and is used to ferment vegetables and seafood. Black salt is the cheapest and is used as a nutritional supplement, but it has considerable soil contamination. Therefore, the coordination and cooperation of the labor groups involved in the sea salt production process reflect the social organization of the industry in Ban Laem.

Detailed interviews with large-scale salt farmers, who own more than 100 rai or 16 hectares of land, have revealed that each step of salt production incurs varying costs. The study categorized these costs into four primary steps. 1. Land preparation workers: Workers involved in this process generally earn a minimum of 350 baht (10.10 dollars) per day. The preparation of the salt fields typically takes about a week and requires the services of seven workers for a 100-rai or 16-hectare area. This is translated into a total cost of about 17,500 baht (504.98 dollars). 2. Casual sea salt workers: Landowners who possess sufficient area often employ additional salt farm workers for assistance in salt production. Based on the interviews, the average wage is about 10,000 baht (288.56 dollars) per month. Considering a typical salt farming season spans seven months, the total cost amounts to 70,000 baht (2019.91 dollars) per season. 3. Scraping workers: This specific set of workers is responsible for salt scraping in designated areas. They usually earn a flat fee, which depends on the size of the salt pond. According to farmers with 100 rai or 16 hectares of salt fields and seven ponds, the salt scraping wage is about 4000 baht (115.42 dollars) per pond. This means that over a month, seven ponds could be harvested, amounting to a total cost of 28,000 baht (807.96 dollars) given that one cycle of salt farming can be harvested five times, amounting to a total cost of 140,000 baht (4039.82 dollars) per cycle. 4. Carrier workers: Workers tasked with transporting the salt are usually paid based on the amount of salt produced in each pond. Based on interviews with the farmers, when salt carriers are required, these workers earn 218.75 baht (6.31 dollars) per ton. Considering an average yield of around 80 tons per pond, the total wage comes to 17,500 baht (504.98 dollars). This means that in one month, up to seven ponds could be harvested, amounting to 196,000 baht (5655.74 dollars) per month or 980,000 baht (28,278.72 dollars) per production cycle. We also conducted interviews with the heads of the workforce responsible for the transportation of sea salt to trucks, a crucial stage in the distribution process. The wages for this task are typically around 800 baht (23.08 dollars) per truck for unpacked salt and approximately 1750 baht (50.50 dollars) per truck for packed salt.

4.3. Social Organizations

Social organization refers to the structured arrangement of interactions and relationships among individuals, families, groups, or communities, as well as various social entities [52]. Contemporary instances of such organizations are often seen in the form of government institutions and corporate entities [53,54]. Within the GIAHS, local social organizations often play a vital role. They are integral to striking a balance between environmental and socioeconomic goals, fostering resilience, and perpetuating all essential elements and processes that ensure the smooth operation of agricultural systems [55]. Therefore, our focus lies in recognizing individuals, groups, families, government agencies, and a range of activities that together comprise social organizations. The role these organizations play in fostering and promoting the culture, cultural capital, and the inherent value of sea salt is key to potentially becoming part of the GIAHS.

The establishment of social organizations within the community has brought significant benefits to the salt farmers in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi. These organizations each have a unique role. For instance, the Phetchaburi’s Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative, the Community Enterprise of Kanghuntong, and local government agencies play vital roles in enhancing the bargaining power of salt farmers and facilitating collaboration among them. The Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative serves as a collaborative platform for sea salt farmers, enabling them to negotiate better prices for their products and expand their marketing channels. Additionally, it acts as a valuable source of information and knowledge sharing, providing academic resources on sea salt farming. The Community Enterprise of Kanghuntong focuses on adding value to sea salt products by transforming them into cosmetic goods. This cooperative organization also serves as a knowledge hub for salt farming techniques for visitors and contributes to community employment opportunities.

The local subdistrict administrative organization, along with the Model Marine Farm under the Royal Patronage of Queen Sirikit in Phetchaburi Province, play pivotal roles in advancing and developing salt farming practices. These local government agencies provide essential support to salt farmers by offering assistance and educational resources on modern salt farming techniques. They actively promote sustainable approaches, including the implementation of the Zero Waste system, which aims to minimize waste throughout the salt production process. Furthermore, the Sea Salt Center of Excellence in Phetchaburi, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, plays a significant role in the comprehensive development of the Thai sea salt production system. It focuses on enhancing the entire value chain of sea salt production, including research, innovation, and capacity building. Together, these social organizations and government agencies create a supportive ecosystem for salt farmers in Ban Laem. They empower the community by fostering collaboration, knowledge exchange, and value addition, ultimately contributing to the economic potential and overall well-being of salt farmers and the local community.

In the contemporary era, these social organizations collaborate frequently to conserve the cultural heritage of Naklua and sustain the value of the salt farming system in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province. For instance, traditions and practices associated with salt farming are typically preserved by individual farmers or families, passing down through generations. Moreover, many social organizations acknowledge the importance of salt culture, contributing to the cultural capital that enhances the salt farming system’s value from various perspectives—historical, academic, aesthetic, economic, and social. Notable examples of such organizations include the Phetchaburi Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative, Khang Thong Community Enterprise, Bang Kaeo Subdistrict Administrative Organization, Ban Laem District Agriculture Office, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. These entities play a crucial role in supporting the perpetuation of cultural practices, particularly those concerning the traditions of salt pan preparation and salt making, thereby helping to retain the historical significance of the salt farming culture.

The Sea Salt Center of Excellence in Phetchaburi managed by Phetchaburi Rajabhat University assumes the responsibility of overseeing and improving the sea salt production system in areas such as tourism, marketing, and technological advancements in production. The Art of Salt, a sea salt sculpture festival, serves as a platform to display the local community’s way of life and the artistry inherent in salt craft. This event is backed by social organizations such as the Phetchaburi Provincial Tourism and Sports Office and the Bang Kaeo Subdistrict Administrative Organization.

Based on the SWOT analysis presented in

Table 1. SWOT analysis of sea salt production heritage.

Strengths (S)	Weaknesses (W)
S1 The sea salt cultural capital in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province, is renowned and serves as a significant local identity. It has a long history as the first sea salt farming area in Thailand, dating back to the Ayutthaya period. S2 Salt farmer cooperatives and community enterprise groups have been established to enhance the bargaining power and unity of salt farmers, fostering a stronger community. S3 Salt farmers in Ban Laem District continue to uphold and pass down their cultural traditions, beliefs, and practices, which have not been overshadowed by the influence of globalization. Ceremonies such as salt field ceremonies and salt ceremonies are still practiced. S4 The local wisdom of salt farmers has led to the development of OTOP products that showcase their expertise, including spa salt products, salt flower soap, and flower salt for cooking. These products not only add value to the local economy but also contribute to expanding market channels.	W1 The decline in traditional knowledge and practices associated with sea salt production poses a significant threat to the cultural significance and authenticity of the salt farming community. This erosion can be attributable to various factors, including generational shifts and a decreasing interest among younger generations in preserving these time-honored traditions. W2 Currently, there is a noticeable scarcity of skilled workers proficient in salt farm equipment, including the construction and maintenance of salt barns. This shortage may lead to the potential loss of a cultural hub for traditional handicrafts in the future. W3 Salt farmers in Ban Laem District have a limited understanding of the importance and value of adopting Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards in their production.
Opportunities (O)	Threats (T)
O1 Salt farmer organizations have formed partnerships with universities and local government agencies to enhance the sustainability of salt farming culture. These collaborations focus on academic research and training initiatives to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of salt farming. O2 Salt farmers have established networks with fellow sea salt producers in different provinces to facilitate the exchange of marketing information and strategies. O3 The government has provided support for the development of sea salt production systems and has actively advocated for the inclusion of sea salt in the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). O4 The Tourism Authority of Thailand actively promotes and supports the organization of sea salt tourism festivals to preserve and showcase the rich sea salt culture. Relevant agencies such as subdistrict administrative organizations, Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, and the Tourism Authority of Thailand play integral roles in coordinating these efforts.	T1 The lack of integration between salt farmer organizations and other farmers in the surrounding areas can be attributable to environmental degradation issues, such as marine pollution and changes in water quality. These factors directly impact the quality and availability of sea salt resources, thus affecting the cultural practices associated with salt farming. T2 The increasing influence of modernization and globalization poses a significant threat to the cultural capital of sea salt. The introduction of machinery and the replacement of local labor may lead to the loss of unique cultural elements and traditional practices that are intrinsic to salt farming. This trend toward modernization and globalization jeopardizes the preservation of the cultural heritage associated with sea salt production. T3 The collaboration between Phetchaburi’s Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative Ltd., representing the salt farming community, and the private sector in terms of economy and trade remains limited, which hinders the cooperative’s ability to expand market channels.

, Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province boasts a notable sea salt cultural capital that holds immense significance as a local identity. With a rich history dating back to the Ayutthaya period, it stands as the pioneering sea salt farming area in Thailand. The establishment of salt farmer cooperatives and community enterprise groups has further strengthened the unity and bargaining power among salt farmers, fostering a resilient and supportive community. Despite the influences of globalization, the salt farmers in Ban Laem District diligently preserve their cultural traditions, beliefs, and practices, with ceremonies such as salt field ceremonies and salt ceremonies still being actively practiced. Moreover, the profound wisdom of these salt farmers has manifested in the development of outstanding OTOP products, including spa salt products, salt flower soap, and flower salt for cooking. These products not only contribute to the local economy but also serve as a gateway for expanding market channels, showcasing the exceptional expertise and ingenuity of the salt farming community.

In terms of weaknesses, the salt farming community is confronted with a critical issue stemming from the diminishing traditional knowledge and practices linked to sea salt production. The declining interest and awareness among younger generations pose a significant risk to the cultural and value systems associated with sea salt production in the community. This shift, coupled with a scarcity of skilled workers proficient in salt farm equipment, including the construction and maintenance of salt barns, raises concerns about the potential loss of a cultural hub for traditional handicrafts in the future. Additionally, salt farmers in Ban Laem District have limited knowledge and appreciation of the significance and value of implementing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) standards in their production.

The opportunities for salt farmer organizations include that they are able to collaborate with universities and local government agencies, forming partnerships that aim to enhance the sustainability of salt farming culture. These collaborations prioritize academic research and training initiatives as means to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of salt farming. Salt farmers have also established networks with fellow sea salt producers in different provinces, fostering the exchange of marketing information and strategies. The government’s support for the development of sea salt production systems and its active advocacy for the inclusion of sea salt in the GIAHS present promising opportunities. Furthermore, the Tourism Authority of Thailand actively promotes and supports the organization of sea salt tourism festivals (Art of Salt), serving as platforms to preserve and showcase the rich sea salt culture. The involvement of relevant agencies, such as subdistrict administrative organizations, Phetchaburi Rajabhat University, and the Tourism Authority of Thailand, plays a crucial role in coordinating these collective efforts. Finally, the sea salt culture faces challenges due to the lack of integration between salt farmer organizations and other farmers in the surrounding areas. Environmental degradation, including marine pollution and changes in water quality, directly impacts the quality and availability of sea salt resources, thus posing a threat to the cultural practices associated with salt farming. Furthermore, the increasing influence of modernization and globalization presents a significant threat to the cultural capital of sea salt. The introduction of machinery and the replacement of local labor may lead to the loss of unique cultural elements and traditional practices that are integral to salt farming. This trend toward modernization and globalization jeopardizes the preservation of the cultural heritage associated with sea salt production. There are limitations in the collaboration between Phetchaburi’s Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative, representing the salt farming community, and the private sector in terms of economy and trade. This constraint hampers the cooperative’s ability to expand its market channels and opportunities for growth.

A TOWS analysis, such as SWOT, entails identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, but differs in the order of examination: threats and opportunities are scrutinized first, followed by weaknesses and strengths. This approach, arranged into a two-by-two matrix, was introduced by Weihrich in 1982, cited by Benzaghta [56]. It is aimed at crafting strategies that incorporate a logical blend of internal (strengths or weaknesses) and external (opportunities or threats) factors [57]. The strategies that emerge from a TOWS analysis can be outlined as follows: 1. S-O Strategy: This strategy leverages internal strengths to take advantage of external opportunities, representing an ideal scenario. 2. S-T Strategy: Here, the organization’s strengths are utilized to confront and mitigate external threats, aiming to maximize strengths while minimizing threats. 3. W-O Strategy: This is a developmental plan that seeks to convert weaknesses into strengths by leveraging external opportunities. 4. W-T Strategy: This strategy works to minimize both threats and weaknesses.

Applying the TOWS analysis presented in

Table 2. TOWS analysis of sea salt production heritage.

S-O Strategies	S-T Strategies
S1 O1: Leverage the renowned sea salt cultural capital in Ban Laem District, partnering with universities and local government agencies to enhance cultural sustainability and share academic research. S2 O3: Utilize the unity and bargaining power of salt farmer cooperatives and community enterprise groups to advocate for support from the government in the development of the sea salt production system. S3 O4: Use traditional ceremonies and practices to enrich the appeal of sea salt tourism festivals, helping to preserve and showcase the unique sea salt culture. S4 O1 O2: Use the local wisdom and value-added OTOP products as a showcase for partnerships with universities and expanding market channels.	S2 T1: Use the collective power of salt farmer cooperatives to negotiate with external parties, helping to minimize the impact of environmental degradation issues. S3 T2: Maintain the practice for the promotion of traditional salt farming ceremonies to counter the influence of modernization and globalization. S4 T2: Utilize the unique OTOP products as a means to maintain cultural heritage and traditional practices amidst the threat of modernization and globalization.
W-O Strategy	W-T Strategy
W1 O1: Partner with universities to offer training initiatives that help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge and practices associated with sea salt production. W2 O1: Use partnerships with local government agencies to facilitate the training of skilled workers in salt farm equipment. W3 O3: Advocate for government support to provide Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) training to salt farmers, helping them understand the value of adopting these standards.	W1 T2: Encourage younger generations to participate in traditional salt farming practices to combat the decline of traditional knowledge and practices. W2 T2: Seek partnerships with external agencies to provide training for the construction and maintenance of salt barns, offsetting the scarcity of skilled workers. W3 T1: Promote the understanding and implementation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to counter the negative impacts of environmental degradation and changes in water quality.

, the following strategies emerged.

1. Utilizing strengths to maximize opportunities (S-O strategies): By harnessing the respected sea salt cultural capital of Ban Laem District, salt farmer cooperatives and community enterprises can consolidate their unity and bargaining power to advocate for government support to boost the sea salt production system. Partnerships with universities and local government agencies further reinforce cultural sustainability and knowledge sharing. Traditional ceremonies and practices serve to enrich sea salt tourism festivals, thereby preserving and highlighting the unique sea salt culture. Additionally, showcasing local wisdom through OTOP products substantiates these partnerships and helps expand market channels.

2. Utilizing strengths to minimize threats (S-T strategies): The collective strength of salt farmer cooperatives is employed to negotiate with external bodies, thus reducing the impact of environmental degradation issues. The preservation and promotion of traditional salt farming ceremonies are key tactics in countering the mounting pressures of modernization and globalization. Furthermore, the unique OTOP products play a crucial role in maintaining cultural heritage and traditional practices amidst increasing globalized influences.

3. Overcoming weaknesses by maximizing opportunities (W-O strategies): Collaborating with universities offers training initiatives that help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge and practices associated with sea salt production. Partnerships with local government agencies enable the training of skilled workers in salt farm equipment. Additionally, advocating for government support in providing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) training aids salt farmers in understanding the importance of these standards.

4. Minimizing weaknesses and avoiding threats (W-T strategies): Encouraging younger generations’ interest in traditional salt farming practices serves as a strategic response to the dwindling traditional knowledge and practices. Forming alliances with external agencies to provide training in the construction and maintenance of salt barns compensates for the shortage of skilled workers. Furthermore, the promotion of understanding and implementing Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) helps to alleviate the negative effects of environmental degradation and water quality changes.

5. Discussion

This study explores the culture, value systems, and social organization and reveals that cultural heritage shapes an individual’s bond to a place, fostering personal or collective connections to agricultural heritage systems. In Ban Laem District of Phetchaburi Province, sea salt farming knowledge is a cultural heritage that has been embodied by farmers and passed down through generations [19]. According to Throsby [4], this cultural capital can be divided into tangible and intangible facets. Tangible cultural capital includes traditional crafts such as salt tools and equipment, while intangible cultural capital encompasses local knowledge, professional knowledge, and belief rituals. This resonates with the insights of Yordchima et al. and Jumpathong [17,31], who propose that the enduring nature of this salt farming culture, composed of both tangible and intangible capitals, is due to its deep-seated existence within individuals and its continuous dissemination among family members and the local community. This cultural capital is further exemplified by traditions such as the Salt Field Ceremony and the Perd Yoong Chang Ceremony, conducted as the production season commences, to seek blessings for a prosperous salt production process and favorable market prices. Then, upon the completion of the initial production phase by the end of January, the first harvest of the cycle is reaped. This milestone is often marked by salt farmers conducting the Kwan Na Kluea Ceremony, as a tribute and an act to invigorate the spirit of salt production.

In addition, the value system of sea salt culture serves as another example of agricultural heritage, offering historical, aesthetic, social, academic, and economic values that bear similarities to other agricultural heritage types. In alignment with the observations by Yongxun et al. [12], the Agricultural Heritage System (AHS) is well demonstrated through the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System (HHRTS). This agricultural practice, with a rich history spanning over 1300 years, is known for its distinctive features. These features comprise not only breathtaking landscapes and unique rice varieties but also an ecologically sound agricultural production system and a systematic approach to water and soil management. Its unique ethnic culture further adds to its diverse values, including economic, ecological, aesthetic, cultural, and social aspects. Similarly, the salt fields in Ban Laem District possess historical value, as salt production in this region dates back to the Ayutthaya period. These fields serve as a valuable academic resource for researchers across various disciplines, including social sciences, economics, and science. The salt fields promote social values through information sharing, collaboration, and economic aid. Moreover, they also offer substantial economic value by providing extensive employment opportunities within the community, thereby playing a crucial role in the economic development of Ban Laem District.

Lastly, the formation of social organizations plays a crucial role in promoting the sustainable livelihood of salt farmers in economic, environmental, and cultural contexts. As noted by Reyes et al. [11], social organizations are typically community groups established to collaboratively manage resources such as water and irrigation, perform tasks such as mowing grass, and assist each other with farming or daily chores. This study indicated that sea salt farming contributes to food security and social harmony, providing employment opportunities for locals and supporting the community economy. This aligns with Nattasupha’s concept of community economy, emphasizing community participation in addressing basic economic problems through agricultural, industrial, and service activities, utilizing existing community resources for product production and distribution, and thus reinforcing local communities [58]. Therefore, the cultural capital inherent in sea salt farming holds potential as a key component for achieving Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) status. Nurturing local pride and reinforcing cultural identities inspire communities to actively safeguard their unique heritage. The practices, traditions, and values tied to sea salt farming are not merely assets; rather, they serve as connective threads that link the community to its historical and cultural origins. This connection engenders a profound commitment to protecting and perpetuating these traditions, thereby assuring the preservation and ongoing survival of these unique agricultural systems for the benefit of future generations.

6. Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

6.1. Conclusions

The tradition of salt farming in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province is facing challenges due to climate change, rising debt, and stiff competition. Additionally, fewer young workers are entering this field. Despite the Thai government’s aim to designate sea salt as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS), the effort is hindered by a notable lack of relevant research and understanding. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the cultural capital and value systems tied to sea salt farming in Ban Laem District within the context of the GIAHS, explore the challenges and opportunities for preserving such cultural capital, and examine the roles of local organizations in supporting and nurturing these cultural values.

Our findings suggest that the sea salt culture in Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province is a rich mix of tangible and intangible assets rooted in traditional practices such as salt farming, unique tools, and shared knowledge. This culture encompasses various unique traditions and ceremonies, reveres the Ta Phuk spirit houses, and is enriched by unique food culture. Tools such as the kata, phlua, erun, wua, and wind turbines play a central role in this heritage. The historical, aesthetic, scientific, social, and economic values associated with sea salt production are evident in the breathtaking salt field landscapes, the strong community bonds it nurtures, and the economic benefits it provides. Organizations such as the Thai Sea Salt Agricultural Cooperative and Community Enterprise of Kanghuntong, together with the local government, play pivotal roles in supporting salt farmers and ensuring the sustainable development of the industry. Salt farmer organizations in Ban Laem District work collaboratively with universities and local government agencies to ensure the sustainability of their traditional salt farming culture. They focus on academic research, training initiatives, and preserving their cultural heritage. Information and strategies are shared through networks established among sea salt producers. Government support, recognition as a GIAHS, and sea salt tourism festivals offer development opportunities. However, challenges include limited cooperation among farmer organizations, environmental degradation impacting salt resources, and threats from modernization and globalization, which can erode traditional practices integral to this cultural heritage.

To support the sustainability and preservation of the sea salt farming culture in Ban Laem District, further studies are recommended in several areas. These include enhancing connections between salt farmer organizations and other local farmers, informed by successful models in different regions or sectors. It is also critical to conduct research on environmental degradation, including marine pollution and water quality changes, as such studies can form the basis for strategies to protect sea salt resources and uphold production associated with Good Agricultural Practices. It is of paramount importance to understand the effects of modernization and globalization on traditional salt farming. This research could facilitate strategies that both preserve tradition and benefit from modern advancements and global trade. Additional studies on the cultural aspects of sea salt farming are needed, particularly examining the impacts of mechanization and labor shifts to reinforce preservation efforts. Evaluations of the effectiveness of government support and policy initiatives for the sea salt industry are also vital. This research could explore potential new policies or improvements to existing ones. Lastly, it would be beneficial to research the impact of popular sea salt festivals on the local economy, culture, and the sustainability of salt farming, as this can provide valuable data to inform future planning.

6.2. Policy Recommendations

Policy Recommendations for Supporting Sea Salt Culture, Value System, and Social Organization Sustainability. To begin with, fostering collaboration among salt farmer organizations, academic institutions, government agencies, and relevant stakeholders, including the private sector, is essential. This collaboration can be facilitated through regular knowledge-sharing platforms, workshops, conferences, encouraging information exchange, and promoting cooperation. Secondly, allocating financial resources to support research, training initiatives, and capacity building for salt farmer organizations is crucial. Dedicated grants and funding opportunities can be provided to promote good agricultural practices in sea salt production, cultural preservation, and community development, ultimately enhancing the overall standard of the sea salt value system. To address environmental concerns related to sea salt production, implementing initiatives to tackle issues such as chemical use in rice fields and waste discharge from the fishing industry is imperative. Strategies must be formulated to combat marine pollution and encourage the adoption of sustainable farming practices and green technologies, safeguarding water quality and ecological aspects vital to the quality and accessibility of sea salt resources. Moreover, extending the promotion of environmentally conscious farming to all farmers utilizing local natural resources and providing training in Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) will further contribute to environmental sustainability.

Launching educational campaigns and programs plays a crucial role in raising awareness of the cultural importance of sea salt production. These initiatives should emphasize the value of preserving traditional practices and the benefits of being recognized under the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). By highlighting the interconnections between sea salt culture, biodiversity, local heritage, and other agricultural systems within the community, these campaigns will foster a sense of pride in, understanding of, and appreciation for cultural heritage, promoting community harmony and sustainable livelihood development. Lastly, community empowerment is essential in supporting salt farming communities. By providing technical assistance, training, and resources to enhance their capacity for sustainable sea salt production, communities can actively preserve their cultural heritage. Supporting community-led initiatives that foster social cohesion, ensure equitable distribution of benefits, and actively involve the youth in preserving sea salt culture will contribute to its sustainability. Additionally, developing a comprehensive set of knowledge, techniques, and procedures for artisans, along with the provision of equipment, tools, and barns, will help preserve ancestral knowledge and pass it on to the next generation of salt farmers, thereby securing the cultural heritage for future generations.

7. Limitations of the Study

This study on sea salt cultural capital in Ban Laem District has several limitations. Firstly, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic hindered the ability to reach interviewees and gather information about agricultural heritages, festivals, and celebrations, thereby affecting the understanding of local identity. Secondly, the study’s focus on sea salt farming in Ban Laem District restricts its applicability to other regions. Thirdly, language and communication barriers associated with Phetchaburi’s unique language and vocabulary may have influenced the accuracy of data collection. Lastly, the study’s limited data collection from a restricted population suggests the need to increase the sample size for a more representative study of the sea salt farming community. Addressing these limitations will allow future studies to provide more comprehensive insights into sea salt cultural capital and its long-term dynamics.